Terracing, Agricultural Strategies, and Resilience at the Ancient Maya Minor Center of Waybil (original) (raw)

Abstract

The study of past agricultural strategies has always drawn the attention of archaeologists across the globe in order to understand the development, florescence, and ultimately the demise of ancient societies. This dissertation asks the question: Were agricultural terraces a successful adaptive mechanism within the subsistence strategy of ancient Maya communities to a buffer against internal (social) and external (environmental) stress? This is addressed by examining the geo-intensive agricultural strategy of the ancient Maya minor center of Waybil, located in the hilly region of the North Vaca Plateau of west-central Belize. Waybil is a small agrarian based center within the larger polity of Minanha. Its occupation stretches from the Late Preclassic (400 B.C – A.D. 100) to Early Postclassic (900 – 1200 A.D.), with a history of agricultural terrace construction and use from the Early Classic (250 – 550 A.D.) to the Terminal Classic (810 – 900 A.D.). This dissertation draws on five years of mapping, excavation, remote sensing (LiDAR), soil analysis, GIS modeling of settlement and landscape, and combined analysis of the resulting multidisciplinary datasets to understanding the role terraces played in changing the agricultural potential of the landscape and strategy of the Waybil community. Using a socio-ecological framework, results are combined with regional archaeological and paleoclimatic data to reveal insights on the social, economic, and political structure of the Minanha polity and the North Vaca Plateau from the agrarian perspective of a minor center subjected to internal social pressure from the growing political capital center and external pressure from fluctuating local precipitation. Concepts drawn from resilience theory conceptualize and explain significant transitional periods within the development, extensification, and eventual abandonment of the agricultural terrace systems at Waybil. Results present the emergent properties of agricultural terraces in relation to hydrological flow and erosion as well as their ability to increase land suitability for production by decreasing variation in the face of climatic fluctuations. The increased stability of production allowed the Waybil community, and subsequently the Minanha polity, to develop the capital necessary to negotiate their socio-political and socio-economic positon outside of the traditional hierarchical polity system.

Figures (77)

northern Guatemala, Belize, and northern Chiapas (Figure 3-1) (see Sharer and Traxler 2006; Sharer and Traxler 2006). The Vaca Plateau of Belize lies in the southem lowland zone of

The Vaca Plateau is one of the largest karst landscapes in Belize covering 1,000 km?

Figure 4-1. Archaeological sites of the North Vaca Plateau. Martinez, Waybil, Mile 4, Oxmuul, Camp 6, Kolchikiin, and Ixkuk (Figure 4-1).

groups in order to compare settlement composition, density, and development between the three 2009). Survey work combined and added to two earlier projects. These included Pollock’s (2003;

(Longstaffe 2011:168-169). date between the Early Classic (A.D. 250 — 550) and Early Postclassic (A.D. 900 — 1050

Figure 4-5. Contreras V alley, North Vaca Plateau, west-central Belize. (Lamoureux-St- Hilaire et al. 2015; Macrae and Iannone 2010; McCormick 2007).

Ixchel

Figure 4-7. Ixchel, North Vaca Plateau, west-central Belize. collected surface finds, explored looter trenches, and roughly mapped the site (Colas et al. 2008;

Figure 4-8. Three-dimensional topographical map of Ixchel (vertical exaggeration x1.5). Martinez

Figure 4-9. Martinez, North Vaca Plateau, west-central Belize.

Waybil

Figure 4-11. Waybil, North Vaca Plateau, west-central Belize. the Late Terminal Preclassic (A.D. 100 — 250) and ended during the Terminal Classic (A.D. 810-

Occupation Sequence of the North Vaca Plateau Permanent occupation within the North Vaca Plateau is not visible in the archaeological

Figure 5-1. Waybil settlement and agricultural terrace survey.

Figure 5-3. Rectified isometric plan of Op.W 102, showing association with Group E.

completed down to the bedrock. planting surfaces, terrace walls, and construction fill. The excavations of this unit were

Figure 5-5. Excavation photos of Unit Op.W 102-1, Level 3. Level 1. Level 1 was designated humus - non - domestic (secondary) and was situated at

securely dated to the Late Classic based on the ceramics excavated (Figure 5-6). Results. Operation Op.W 102-1 presented an example of a Late Classic contour from the most eastern terrace wall and planting surface. They are hypothesized to have been the

Figure 5-7. Rectified isometric plan of Op.W 103, showing association with Group F. ran around Group F (Figure 5-7). system near Group F. The agricultural terrace selected for excavation was a contour terrace that Op.W 103 was located in the northwest sub-zone, placed within an agricultural terrace

Figure 5-10. Ceramic frequency and Estimated Vessel Equivalent of Op.W 104-1, Level 3.

Figure 5-12. Rectified isometric plan of Op.W 104, showing association with Group L. constitute some of the tallest terraces (Macrae 2010:105). 2001:326; Treacy and Denevan 1994:96). While they tend to be rather short in length, they do

Figure 5-13. South-north profile of Unit Op.W 104-1, facing west.

Unit Op.W 104-1

![1448]), this falls well after the occupation of Waybil (Figure 5-16). Figure 5-15. Ceramic frequency and Estimated Vessel Equivalent of Op.W 104-1, Level 3. ‘lassic (conventional date [B.P] 458 +/- 23, 1 o cal A.D. [1418 — 1456], 2 o A.D. 1430 - continuous use of this agricultural terrace. Op.W 104-1 retumed a date range within the Late Post

1448]), this falls well after the occupation of Waybil (Figure 5-16). Figure 5-15. Ceramic frequency and Estimated Vessel Equivalent of Op.W 104-1, Level 3. ‘lassic (conventional date [B.P] 458 +/- 23, 1 o cal A.D. [1418 — 1456], 2 o A.D. [1430 - continuous use of this agricultural terrace. Op.W 104-1 retumed a date range within the Late Post

Figure 5-17. Rectified isometric plan of Op.W 105, showing association with Group J. terrace wall and two planting surfaces. valley wall. In addition to being situated within the terrace system, it was oriented to expose one

surface uncovered in front of the terrace wall. Since all levels were likely constructed at the same larger fill found under Level 3a and Level 3b. Finally, Level 3d constituted a terrace-planting

Figure 5-19. Excavation photo of Unit Op.W105-1. Left, unexcavated terrace wall (Level 3), Right, excavated terrace wall, exhibiting drainage feature (Level 3c) Unit Op.W 105-1 level was concentrated throughout the excavation unit. The humus and slump layer (Level 1 & 2)

Figure 5-20. Ceramic frequency of Op.W 105-1, Level 3. construction of the planting surface, but this is currently lacking strong evidence. construction of agricultural terraces or the incorporation of older material during the expedient

Figure 5-21. AMS of SOM for terrace-planting surface, Op.W 103-1, Level 3. Operation W105, revealed Late Classic ceramics in the terrace wall, planting bed, and a

Figure 5-22. Textural analysis of the Waybil terrace planting surfaces; Op.W 102, Op.W 103, Op.W 104, Op.W105. texture, partical size and surface area, is a fundamental component of comprehending all soil

Op.W 102 and Op.W 104 found just outside of the classification. Several factors contribute to this higher pH level. The high level of accumulated organic matter results in an elevated pH level

agricultural scientists to understand just what a crop can access under ideal circumstances). ICP

Table 5-6. Level of adherence to general crop production requirements. When considering the role of nutrients in terms of plant growth it is important to consider

Table 5-7. Organic Matter (%) of the W aybil terrace planting surfaces; Op.W 102, Op.W 103, Op.W 104, Op.W105. Section Summary: Archaeopedological Analysis These archaeopedological tests present the basic properties of the soils collected from the terrace planting surfaces excavated at Waybil. These soils are Anthrosols with a distinct Pretic

Production C oncerns and Problems these interviewees’ was hired to work the farm in the place of the owner. Typically, farmers are using milpa, slash and bum, techniques to clear the land. Two products, primarily wood for household consumption and building material. However, one of

North Vaca Plateau during the occupation of Waybil. The Macal Chasm is located 9 km oy Webster (2007) and refine multi-proxy identification of annual wet and dry periods in the likely effect of the close proximity of the stalagmite to the cave entrance shaft and the

Y ucatan, near the cave where the Chaac speleothem was removed (Figure 7-3). A.D., equivalent to 14% of modern annual precipitation (Douglas et al. 2016a:627). These new

with the fortunes of the residents of the Minanha polity of which they were part (Figure 8-1)

are nine box-terraces, 541 contour terraces, and 65 cross-channel terraces. cross-channel terraces. Of the 615 terraces within the terrace systems that surround Waybil there

Figure 8-3. Percentage of terraces by nomenclature type. A comparison between Waybil and the Contreras V alley. landscape features and placement within them. Terrace construction differences between the two regions, as the definition of terrace typology is heavily dependent on Construction styles and uniformity can provide insight into the labor investment and to acknowledge that this difference in terrace standardization may also reflect the topographical

Figure 8-5. Q-Q plot of terrace density at Waybil. Results describing non-normality of data.

Figure 8-6. Density distribution of terrace density at Waybil (Red, Mean 0.098) and the Contreras V alley (Blue, Mean 0.03). Contreras V alley that were too steep to be conducive for agricultural terracing. A comparative analysis of the density of terrace systems in the neighboring Contreras terrace system in the Contreras V alley exhibits a few areas of high terrace density and

Focal Statistics operates by calculating the sum elevation value of a specified proximity of the cells being calculated. A circle neighborhood with a radius of 5 m was used to

The results from the FAC analysis revealed that the terraced DEM has a mean log FAC

This density distribution presents the number of results per value across the range of the FAC for both the terraced and terrace-removed DEM were subjected to a permutation

Figure 9-5. Density distribution depicting flow accumulation (FAC) of terraced and terrace removed.

the smaller sample area. The wider collection of FAC attests to the infrequent, yet highest FA C lower FAC across the field systems. This trend was highlighted and confirmed in the analysis of

grouping many of the smaller ones, and ultimately creating 52 catchments basins (Figure 9-6). These are more useful for visualizing broader hydrological processes at our scale of

The density distribution of the catchments surface area was plotted and subjected to a a similarity between the terraced and terrace-removed DEMs. To further illuminate this

Generally, differences are observed by more gradual variation in values of the terraced DEM

Figure 9-7. Density distribution of the catchment surface area (1m?) using a 2% FAC threshold. catchments created by the terraced and terrace-removed DEMs are significantly different. Table 9-3. Skewness of the density distribution of the catchment surface area (1m”). 0.004. This rejects the null hypothesis, and accepts the alternative hypothesis that that the

Table 9-4. RUSLE factors and values assigned to terrace and terrace-removed DEM with th three precipitation regimes, wet, average, and dry. R factor Rainfall erosivity assesses the effect of raindrop impact as well as the amount and rate of 2006; Chicas and Omine 2015; Chicas et al. 2016; Thattai et al. 2003), the examination of the

Figure 9-9. Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the we precipitation regime.

Figure 9-10. Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the average precipitation regime.

Section Summary: Susceptibility to Erosion In this section, the level of erosion has been calculated across the agrarian landscape

Table 9-6. RUSLE and skewness analysis derived from the average percipicaition regime. Figure 9-11. Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the dry precipitation regime. Table 9-7. RUSLE and skewness analysis derived from the dry percipicaition regime.

Table 9-8. Agricultural Suitability score values assigned to slope. high overland flow (Akinci et al. 2013:75; Bandyopadhyay et al. 2009:889). percentage of over 30 to 35 are not well suited for agriculture due to the sloping topography and

Table 9-9. Agricultural Suitability score values assigned to aspect. RUSLE The RUSLE equation is rarely incorporated in the agricultural suitability models. the tropical environment, were assigned a higher score (Akinci et al. 2013:75). Similar slope optimum with more sun on the southem facing surfaces, which receive the most sunlight despite

Table 9-11. Pairwise comparison and A HP weights. Suitability classification With all the datasets collected, scored individually, and collectively weighted, the next also acted to simplify the AHP method reducing the level of subjectivity, keeping the CR values the weighted sum of each value with the GIS platform. The equation is:

these categories attributed to the terrace-removed lands. This represents the reduced amount of

Figure 9-14. Agricultural suitability during a year of low precipitation. Top: non-terrace DEM Bottom: terraced DEM. Figure 9-13. Agricultural suitability during a year of average precipitation. Top: non-terrace DEM, Bottom: terraced DEM.

the terraced and terrace-removed landscape (Figure 9-15). adex encompassing all precipitation regimes (Table 9-12). This coefficient is used to compare

Figure 9-15. Classification of surface area (1 m2) into suitability index.

Figure 9-16. Percentage of coefficient of variation, Terrace-removed and Terraced. The coefficient of variation is determined by taking the ratio of standard deviations from the mean. While the results are dimensionless, and unable to be statistically tested for

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References (620)

1. -9 Excavation photos of Unit Op.W103-1, Level 3. Left Front wall, Right retaining wall. ..................................................................................................................................135 5-10 Ceramic frequency and Estimated Vessel Equivalent of Op.W104-1, Level 3. ..............138 5-11 AMS of SOM for terrace-planting surface, Op.W103-1, Level 3. ..................................138 5-12 Rectified isometric plan of Op.W104, showing association with Group L. ....................140 5-13 South-north profile of Unit Op.W104-1, facing west. .....................................................141 5-14 Excavation photo of Unit Op.W104-1: Left unexcavated terrace wall (Level 3), Right excavated terrace wall depicting retaining wall (level 3). ...............................................141
2. 5-15 Ceramic frequency and Estimated Vessel Equivalent of Op.W104-1, Level 3. ..............144 5-16 AMS of SOM for terrace-planting surface, Op.W104-1, Level 3. ..................................145 5-17 Rectified isometric plan of Op.W105, showing association with Group J. .....................146 5-18 East-west profile of Unit Op.W105-1, facing north. .......................................................147 5-19 Excavation photo of Unit Op.W105-1. Left, unexcavated terrace wall (Level 3), Right, excavated terrace wall, exhibiting drainage feature (Level 3c) ............................148
3. 5-20 Ceramic frequency of Op.W105-1, Level 3. ....................................................................151 5-21 AMS of SOM for terrace-planting surface, Op.W103-1, Level 3. ..................................152 5-22 Textural analysis of the Waybil terrace planting surfaces; Op.W102, Op.W103, Op.W104, Op.W105. .......................................................................................................157
4. 7-1 Major Dry Events (MDE) identified in paleoclimatic data drawn from Macal Chasm and compared to data from Tzabnab Cave, Rio Secreto, Yok Balum Cave, and Lake Chichancanab ...................................................................................................................176
5. 2 Climate proxy data from stalagmite MC01 covering the major Maya occupation on the Vaca Plateau: A) ultraviolet-stimulated luminescence, B) δ13C, and C) δ18O ........178
6. 7-3 Correlation between Chaac δ 18 O values and precipitation (mm/year) with the contemporary average annual rainfall in central Yucatan. ..............................................181
7. 8-1 The Major center of Minanha with subsidiary minor centers within a 7 km buffer ........184
8. 8-2 Distribution of terraces by type nomenclature at Waybil. ...............................................197
9. 8-3 Percentage of terraces by nomenclature type. A comparison between Waybil and the Contreras Valley. .............................................................................................................198
10. 8-4 Density of terrace distribution at Waybil. ........................................................................205
11. 8-5 Q-Q plot of terrace density at Waybil. Results describing non-normality of data. .........205
12. 8-6 Density distribution of terrace density at Waybil (Red, Mean 0.098) and the Contreras Valley (Blue, Mean 0.03). ...............................................................................206
13. 9-1 Terrace removed DEM of Waybil. ..................................................................................213
14. 9-2 Eight-direction pour point model. ....................................................................................217
15. 9-3 Flow Direction of the Waybil survey zone. .....................................................................219
16. 9-4 Flow Accumulation, terraced DEM (A) and terrace Removed DEM (B). ......................220
17. 9-5 Density distribution depicting flow accumulation (FAC) of terraced and terrace removed............................................................................................................................221
18. 9-6 Catchment delineation, terraced DEM (A), terrace-removed DEM (B) ..........................222
19. 9-7 Density distribution of the catchment surface area (1m 2 ) using a 2% FAC threshold. ...224
20. 9-8 RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the wet precipitation regime. .....237
21. 9-9 Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the wet precipitation regime. ........................................................................................................238
22. 9-10 Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the average precipitation regime. ...........................................................................................238
23. 9-11 Density distribution of RUSLE susceptibility to erosion, values derived from the dry precipitation regime. ........................................................................................................239
24. 9-12 Agricultural suitability during a year of high precipitation. Top: non-terrace DEM , Bottom: terraced DEM. ....................................................................................................249
25. 9-13 Agricultural suitability during a year of average precipitation. Top: non-terrace DEM, Bottom: terraced DEM. .........................................................................................250
26. 9-14 Agricultural suitability during a year of low precipitation. Top: non-terrace DEM, Bottom: terraced DEM. ....................................................................................................250
27. 9-15 Classification of surface area (1 m 2 ) into suitability index. .............................................251
28. 9-16 Percentage of coefficient of variation, Terrace-removed and Terraced. .........................252
29. How big is your family?
30. Does anyone help you on the farm?
31. How big is your farm?
32. What crops do you grow?
33. How do you decide where to plant every year?
34. When do you plant and harvest your crops?
35. What do you keep for yourself and what do you sell?
36. Have you had any problems with drought?
37. What problems do you have farming here?
38. Do you foresee any problems in the future?
39. Do you have any terraces in your farm?
40. Have you built any terraces?
41. Do you maintain any of the terraces? into a significant total investment, are suggestive of decentralized organization, while centralized organization requires a high level of investment over a short period of time (Dunning and Beach 1994; Fedick 1994; Wyatt 2005). Most Maya terraces are composed of several courses of dry-laid, limestone boulders that create a retaining wall, often anchored to the underlying bedrock with larger boulders, and an infilled level planting surface (Beach et al. 2002; Chase and Chase 1998; Dunning and Beach 1994; Healy et al. 1983; Kunen 2001; Neff 2008; Thompson 1939; Turner 1974). Terrace wall height and planting surface width vary based on topography. Within this broad scheme, there are two general construction styles, single or double walled. Single walled terrace facing walls contain a level of cobble sized limestone and/or chert fill (Healy et al. 1983:404; Kunen 2001:327, 339; Turner 1983b:77-84), while double wall terraces also have a buried backing wall of large stacked stones, up to half a meter behind the facing wall (Chase and Chase 1998:69;
42. Dunning and Beach 1994:59; Healy et al. 1983:404) which provides both strength and porosity (Kunen 2001:327). Variations on these construction styles included the placement of additional fill (Healy et al. 1983; Turner 1983b) or use of natural bedrock for construction foundations (Dunning and Beach 1994; Pollock 2007). Differentiation in terrace walls have been thought to be analogous with specific terrace types: double walled cross-channel terraces and single walled contour terraces (Murtha 2002:161-162, 167-168). However, excavations have demonstrated a level of variability within the construction methods of specific terrace types (Beach et al. 2002:380). The quality of wall construction has also been used to reflect increased investments in areas in close proximity to settlement units as well as areas of higher agricultural potential (Macrae 2010:128). This line of inquiry can be used to suggest a decision in regards to the amount of labor to be invested in the REFERENCES Abel, Thomas, and John R. Stepp 2003 A New Ecosystems Ecology for Anthropology. Conservation Ecology 7(3):12.
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