Signs of soil fertigation in the desert: A pigeon tower structure near Byzantine Shivta, Israel (original) (raw)
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Soils of ancient terraces in the southern Levant: archives of desert agriculture?
2019
Soils of runoff-irrigated ancient terraces of the southern Levant show elevated ratios of stanols indicative for deposition of faeces from omnivores, probably humans. This corresponds to ancient sources describing the collection and application of excrements for manuring. It suggest an agricultural purpose of the terrace systems. However, contents of plant-available phosphorus are not directly connected with faeces biomarkers, but seem to reflect varying deposition rates of mineral soil.
Pigeon rearing was an integral part of the agricultural regime that dominated the Negev region in Israel throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods. Dozens of structures have been documented that relate to the raising of pigeons and the exploitation of their dung as a fertilizer as is attested in the literary sources (Pliny, Columella and Varro). Excavation of a dovecote near Shivta produced large quantities of pigeon dung and sediments. The material recovered was processed for floral remains (both macro and micro) and archaeozoological remains. We present a holistic look at pigeon diet and local environmental conditions in the Byzantine Negev through the archaeobotanical remains. Demographic and morphometric analysis of size and shape of the pigeon bones refine our understanding of pigeon species that were bred in antiquity as well as inform on their life-histories. This integrated examination from an agro-archaeological perspective illustrates the complexity of desert agriculture.
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 2010
This paper provides a preliminary examination of the archaeobotanical remains from pigeon dung samples obtained from Byzantine period destruction levels of pigeon tower (Dovecote) VI near the site of Shivta, Israel. Pigeon dung was a valuable commodity as an agricultural fertilizer in ancient times and would not have been abandoned without cause. The analysis of the plant remains from these unique dung samples provides direct evidence of pigeon diet and regional environment. The results of the analysis found ten plant taxa representing either seeds and/or plant parts (cereal chaff material),which included 5 wild species, 1 legume, 4 fruit/nut species and several unidentified seed fragments. The most common seeds found were the weed species mezereon and fig seeds. From this analysis, it is likely that the birds in pigeon tower VI were eating a mixed diet of wild seeds (mezereon, fumitory) and small fruits (grape, fig, olive and date). There were only small numbers of dock, sedge and rockjasmine that were identified in the sample and as a result it is probable these were contamination. It appears that the pigeons were either free to feed from fallow fields and refuse piles nearby or were intentionally being feed a diet of crop by-products that included these wild species.
Journal of Arid Environments, 2020
Ancient agricultural systems in the Negev Desert preserves abundant evidence of dryland farming from the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. These systems consist of dams, field plots, field towers, cisterns and thousands of human-made stone mounds. In the environment of Shivta, these systems also included built dovecotes to produce dung to fertilize vineyards and orchards. All of these elements established an intensive agronomic practice. Extensive survey and excavations in one completely preserved agricultural system in a small wadi in the hinterland of Shivta, followed by OSL dating of loess accumulations in the adjacent agricultural installations, in addition to dates from archaeological finds, revealed clear stratigraphic and chronological sequences. We found that the first human-made components were established in the Roman period (1st-2nd centuries CE) and the agricultural system flourished during the Byzantine period (5th-6th centuries CE) before it was abandoned in the post-Byzantine era. At its peak, all artificial components of the system would have had to operate together at an optimum level to make intensive agriculture possible. This agricultural system is a prime example of the enormous skill and knowledge of Shivta farmers in synergizing different agricultural installations to maintain agriculture in a desert environment.
Soil denudation in the northwestern Negev (Israel) following the Late Byzantine -Early Islamic period, 2024
During the 5th and 6th centuries, the economic hinterland of the city of Gaza encompassed a network of settlements that supplied the city with agricultural produce. Water was collected in underground cisterns from rooftops and courtyards. While almost nothing remained of the above-ground structures since the settlements collapsed, soil erosion exposed these cisterns, which now serve as well-preserved indicators of the location and levels of the houses-that supplied the water. The study examines to what extent the land abandonment in the late Byzantine-early Islamic period resulted in denudation and soil property changes. We hypothesize that the abandonment of settlements and agriculture intensified soil erosion and amplified gully development. Approximately 140 cisterns were mapped in the study area, mainly north of the ephemeral Nahal Gerar stream. The height of the cisterns above the ground was used to calculate the denudation rate (DR) since abandonment. Findings indicate that over relatively flat terrains (1-5 %), cisterns protrude 0.5-1.2 m above the surface. Considering abandonment in the 6th or 11th century, DR was calculated as 0.35-0.85 mm/yr or 0.5-1.2 mm/yr, respectively. Over steeper slopes (10-12 %), along river banks and incised gullies, extensive bank erosion occurred, leading to the exposure of cisterns up to 2.5 m; DR = 1.8 to 2.5 mm/yr, depending on the abandonment time. The settlements' distribution and the surface topography directly correlate: in settled areas, Terrain Roughness Index (TRI) values are higher compared to other areas with the same lithology and rainfall amount. Following abandonment, decaying houses resulted in the complete disintegration of mud bricks, increasing the proportion of fine soil fractions. Cisterns acted as sedimentation basins, trapping surface-derived sediments and debris, including degraded brick material. This process influenced the mechanical composition of soils, affecting soil erosion and land degradation.
CATENA, 2017
Human settlement activities are connected with the accumulation of nutrients in archaeological soils. We address the question of whether the large-scale mapping of the elemental composition of the topsoil in contemporary rangeland can be used for the detection of ancient settlement activities. Using portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), we mapped the elemental composition of contemporary soils over an area of 67 ha in and around the Bronze and Iron Age settlement of Tel Burna (identified as probably corresponding with biblical Libnah). Ancient settlement activities substantially increased concentrations of nutrients (P, K, S, Zn and Cu) in the contemporary topsoil owing to the deposition of biomass ashes and organic wastes. Increased concentrations of elements were detected 2500 years after the site was abandoned and we can therefore suppose that changes in the elemental composition of the soil caused by ancient settlement activities are irreversible on a timescale in which human societies operate. Ancient settlement activities increased concentrations of nutrients in contemporary soil to the same level as recent intensive fertiliser application on an adjacent arable field used for vegetable production. Concentrations of nutrients higher than those on the tell summit were recorded only in recent cattle resting areas with intensive deposition of cattle faeces. Changes in the elemental composition of the soil caused by ancient settlement activities consequently result in differential nutrient availability for contemporary vegetation, affecting ecosystem functions for thousands of years. Using pXRF, large-scale mapping of the elemental composition of the topsoil layer at archaeological sites can help to identify the extent and provide basic information on the character of past human activities in the affected landscape units.
Urban gardens in Antiquity: The case of Gerasa/Jerash in Jordan
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2022
In the Eastern Mediterranean, where some of the earliest known urban cities are located, relatively little is known about urban soils in archaeological contexts. Red Mediterranean Soil (RMS) is a hallmark of the Mediterranean region while the impact of long-term urbanization on RMS material is understudied. In this article we present evidence of RMS from the longue durée cityscape of Jerash, Jordan, to determine how humans have used, modified and impacted RMS material in an urban context. Thin-sections were made of twelve RMS samples, and micromorphological studies on several in-situ but disturbed soils adjacent to bedrock were conducted, spanning the initial surface soil disturbances in the Hellenistic and Roman period occupation, as well as transported RMS material spanning the Roman through Umayyad periods (until the earthquake of 749 CE). We compared the onsite inner-urban red soils to natural RMS in the area and found that some characteristics reflect their origin in the Pleistocene soils, while other traits reflect human impact related to urban activities. The majority of the on-site samples contained evidence comparable to modern centers, including changes of structure, texture, inclusions, as well as high levels of contamination of heavy metals and phosphorus (P), which combined are strong signs of urban activity. Evidence including textural pedofeatures, fragmented peds, mixed fabrics, sorting of silt-sized material likely reflect the use of RMS in urban gardens and cultivation. Black carbon inclusions within the fabric contain evidence for burning of organic matter in connection with various anthropogenic activities, likely re-dispersed via aeolian and water erosion processes. Heavy metal enrichments, which are associated with production and artisanal activities, may also have been disseminated by both aeolian and surface water processes, possibly in conjunction with irrigation undertaken with polluted water. Contrasting soil fabrics and inclusion features observed in thin section together with elemental analayses characterizes the nature of urban cultivation in its environmental context at Jerash, where city life was maintained for over 800 years. With cultivated soils in urban areas increasingly evidenced in archaeological stratigraphies from different regions of the world, our approach offers new insight into the vital contributions that these soils and their management has made to the food security, resilience and longevity of early city life.
Geomorphology , 2024
During the 5th and 6th centuries, the economic hinterland of the city of Gaza encompassed a network of settlements that supplied the city with agricultural produce. Water was collected in underground cisterns from rooftops and courtyards. While almost nothing remained of the above-ground structures since the settlements collapsed, soil erosion exposed these cisterns, which now serve as well-preserved indicators of the location and levels of the houses - that supplied the water. The study examines to what extent the land abandonment in the late Byzantine - early Islamic period resulted in denudation and soil property changes. We hypothesize that the abandonment of settlements and agriculture intensified soil erosion and amplified gully development. Approximately 140 cisterns were mapped in the study area, mainly north of the ephemeral Nahal Gerar stream. The height of the cisterns above the ground was used to calculate the denudation rate (DR) since abandonment. Findings indicate that over relatively flat terrains (1–5 %), cisterns protrude 0.5–1.2 m above the surface. Considering abandonment in the 6th or 11th century, DR was calculated as 0.35–0.85 mm/yr or 0.5–1.2 mm/yr, respectively. Over steeper slopes (10–12 %), along river banks and incised gullies, extensive bank erosion occurred, leading to the exposure of cisterns up to 2.5 m; DR = 1.8 to 2.5 mm/yr, depending on the abandonment time. The settlements’ distribution and the surface topography directly correlate: in settled areas, Terrain Roughness Index (TRI) values are higher compared to other areas with the same lithology and rainfall amount. Following abandonment, decaying houses resulted in the complete disintegration of mud bricks, increasing the proportion of fine soil fractions. Cisterns acted as sedimentation basins, trapping surface-derived sediments and debris, including degraded brick material. This process influenced the mechanical composition of soils, affecting soil erosion and land degradation.;
Ancient agricultural systems based on runoff harvesting techniques are abundant in the Negev Highlands. The current study examined traditional classification and investigated the distribution of ancient agricultural systems around the Roman-Byzantine "Negev Towns" Avdat and Shivta, and across the terrain located between these sites and Makhtesh Ramon in the south. It led to an elaboration of the traditional classification of runoff agricultural systems in the Negev desert of southern Israel. We found that the key factors for building these types of agricultural systems were the geological and geomor-phological characteristics of the specific site locations and the geographic distance from nearby towns and roads. Depending on these factors, a multitude of types of agricultural systems were constructed in accordance with the physical characteristics of the local desert environment. This clearly indicates the continuation of the current desert climate throughout historical times. Furthermore, the large diversity of agriculture installations indicates that they were constructed by local farmers and not by an external plan imposed by the central government.