'Hurdles to Peace: A level of Analysis Approach to Resolving Sudan's Civil Wars' Third World Quarterly (original) (raw)
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Sudan experienced the longest civil war in the history of conflict in Africa up to 2011. The first civil war started after independence in 1956 and lasted till 1972, while the second ran from 1983 to 2011, when Southern Sudan seceded in 2011 via a referendum. The first conflict followed Khartoum’s failure to implement the agreement made with Southerners before independence from Britain in 1956. Southern soldiers mutinied and the war broke out. The soldiers then formed a militia group called ‘Anya Nya’, which was led by General Joseph Lagu (Rtd.). The primary demand of this group was equality in all spheres of national life. The second civil war ended after implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which was signed in 2005. The second war took protracted patterns and processes before it could be ended in 2011. This paper however, examines and analyses the patterns and processes involved in the negotiations for peace on four tracks which are as follow: Track One: Involvement of the North and South Sudanese who organised conferences from the grassroots up to the level of the warlords on how the conflict could be resolved. This marked the foundation on which other processes were built. Track Two: Involvement of the sub-regional organization Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), which organised and moderated the conferences held both within and outside Sudan from 1983 to 2011. Track Three: Involvement of the US, the EU, the Troika countries, and China. These countries spent millions of US dollars trying to end the war. Track Four: Involvement of international organisations such as the UNSC and the AU in collaboration with IGAD. The study adopts content analysis research methods. It utilises primary sources, which were accessed from different repositories in Nigeria, Sudan, and South Sudan, such as the Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan. The work is organised thematically and chronologically. The study establishes that internal mechanisms contributed extensively to the resolution of the Sudanese conflicts in 2011. Without it hostilities would most certainly have continued. It also played an important role in the secession of South Sudan from Sudan without recourse to war.
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EJMSS JOURNAL VOLUME 3 NO 2, 2023
The Sudanese crisis has run into decades of political instability, ethnic tensions, and economic challenges, resulting in the emergence of armed conflicts and widespread violence. This paper examinedthe politics of civil war, intervention, and resolution in the context of the Sudanese crisis which led to the creation of South Sudan. The methodology adopted is content analysis. The paper adopted the theory of cooperative conflict resolution. The findings of this study reveal that while external interventions can contribute to a peaceful resolution, they can also exacerbate the conflict by fueling factionalism and perpetuating violence. The paper also highlighted the role of local actors in shaping the trajectory of the conflict and the importance of their inclusion in the resolution process. The paper concludes with the notion that a lasting resolution to the Sudanese crisis will require sustained efforts by all stakeholders, including the Sudanese government, rebel groups, regional actors, and the international community. It recommends that to effectively resolve the Sudanese crisis, the root cause of the conflict should be addressed. This may involve addressing historical injustices, addressing ethnic and religious tensions, improving economic opportunities, and promoting social inclusion.
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Common to most protracted conflicts that relapse into war is a disconnect between elites and local communities, which typically suffer the most when the former undermine peace agreements to further their own narrow interests. The central argument in this chapter, drawing heavily on the recent history of Sudan/South Sudan and the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), is that African conflict resolution and peacebuilding relies too heavily on political agreements between politico-military elites. These deals focus largely on elite power and resource-sharing arrangements. Mostly ignored are the communal and societal dynamics that initially fed the violence. Sudan/South Sudan’s persistent conflict and instability is a prime example of what happens when peace agreements are signed without due regard for the true nature and genesis of the conflict.
The Sudanese Conflicts: A Multi-Level Game With Regional and International Interest
EJMSS JOURNAL VOLUME 3 NO 2, 2023
The Sudanese conflicts are complex and involve various actors with different interests, assuming regional and international dimensions, with neighbouring countries and international actors having a stake in the outcome of the conflict. These conflicts in Sudan which started from 1955 to 2011 when South Sudan seceded have resulted in a significant humanitarian crisis, with millions of people displaced and in need of humanitarian assistance. In addition to the conflict in Darfur, the conflicts in the Blue Nile and South Kordofan states have also led to displacement and humanitarian needs. The paper explores the regional and international interests in the conflicts, and how these interests have shaped the conflicts. The methodology employed for this study is contextual analysis. The theoretical framework adopted is the Conflict Transformation Theory, which emphasizes addressing the root causes of conflicts and transforming the relationships between conflicting parties to achieve sustainable peace. The findings of the study revealed that the Sudanese conflicts have become a point of interest to several actors. The study concludes by emphasizing that it is imperative that all regional and international actors work together towards finding a lasting solution to the conflicts in Sudan. It recommends that the United Nations and African Union should continue to support peacekeeping efforts in Sudan.
Conflict Resolution in South Sudan
The 21st century has witnessed a significant shift from 'old wars' to what British academic Mary Kaldor has termed 'new wars'. Characteristic of the post-Cold War era, these new wars involve a multitude of complex factors and actors at various levels that instigate and sustain war and violence. Among other things, it is the longer lasting nature of new civil wars as compared to old wars, having vast psychological, economic, cultural and social impact at the grassroots level, that necessitates their in-depth study to provide relevant information as a prerequisite for peacemaking and peacebuilding efforts. The ongoing third civil war in South Sudan is one such New War. South Sudan, the youngest nation of the world, caught attention as it emerged out of a referendum gaining an almost 100% consensus for its independence. The possibility of a country, emerging from a consensus so massive, being crippled by civil war was unexpected. However, within five years of its independence, a conflict between two political groups had emerged, overriding other state concerns. Despite attempted implementation of multiple peace agreements, the conflict continues to soar through, negating any attempt at mediation or negotiation. The paper begins with an analysis of the two major peace agreements viz. Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (2015) and Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan to resolve the South Sudan conflict (2018). It then seeks to examine other possible means of conflict resolution by attempting to draw parallels between theories of conflict resolution given by J.V. Monteville, Morton Deutsch, William Zartman and Johan Galtung and the empirical reality of the peace process in South Sudan. Hence, this paper is significant not only in terms of its contribution to literature on conflict resolution and peacebuilding but also in aiding comprehension of prospective paths to a stable future for the conflict torn communities in this country.