Taipei, Academia Sinica: November 24, 2017 (original) (raw)
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Gandhāra was very popular in ancient times in the areas comprising North western parts of India and parts of Central Asia. Ancient Gandhāra region located in the present day Peshawar valley, Swat valley of Northern Pakistan and Kabul river valley of Eastern Afghanistan. Kharoṣṭhī script was the main script of Gandhāri language in Prakrit dialect of the ancient Gandhara region. Kharoṣṭhī, now a dead script was a script of Gandhāri (Prakrit dialect) language. Kharoṣṭhī was one of the main language scripts in north-western parts of India. Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts are identical and contemporary. Kharoṣṭhī script (Prakit dialects) developed during Indo-Greeks rulers during 3rd century BCE. Kharoṣṭhī scripts seem to have developed under Achaemenian control because of the influence of Aramaic script. Gandhāri Language and was an official language of kingdoms of Gandhāra. Gandhāri language was very popular in Ancient parts of Central Asia (present day Afghanistan, Bactria, and Scythia and north eastern parts of China. This research paper is a comparative study of Kharoṣṭhī documents from Chinese Turkestan, was discovered by Aurel Stein in his expeditions to the Central Asian sites of Niya, Khotan, Endere and Lou-lan, focuses on the grammatical section and use of vowel. These documents are the earliest Buddhist manuscript discovered, dating back to first century BCE. KEYWORDS: GANDHARA BUDDHISM, GANDHARI LANGUAGE, SCRIPT, KHAROSTHI DOCUMENTS, TRANSLITERATION, GARMMER, VOWEL.
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In the 10th century, the nomadic Khitan, with their Liao dynasty, became the most dominant power in East Asia, posing enormous threats to the Chinese Song dynasty in the south. Based on an analysis of the traditional Chinese world view, this paper examines the two opposing views of the Song Chinese about their Khitan neighbours in the north. The Song Chinese acknowledged the military prowess of the Khitan and thus advocated flexible diplomatic policies based on realistic observation and careful assessment, demonstrated by the diplomatic parity set by the Treaty of Chanyuan in 1005. In the meantime, many held firm belief in their cultural superiority over the " barbarians " , which derived from the tradition of a cultural sino-centrism. The Song looked for Confucian sources to justify their concession by turning their attention to the cultivation of virtue and were confident that they were the centre of culture and civilisation.
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