An analysis of Barack Obama's victory speech based on Jakobson's classification of language functions (original) (raw)
**CONSTANTINE THE PHILOSOPHER UNIVERSITY**
**Faculty of Arts**
**Language functions in political interviews and speeches. An analysis based on Jakobson’s classification of language functions.**
Name and surname: Jana Chrenková
Subject of study: English in a Professional communication
2017/2018
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 3
ANALYSIS 4
CONCLUSION 9
SOURCES 10
APPENDIX 12
1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of my research paper will focus on the analysis of political speech from the perspective of Jakobson’s classification of language functions, particularly on the analysis of Barack Obama’s victory speech from 2008.
Russian-American linguist Roman Jakobson proposed six elements or factors of communication, which are necessary for any act of verbal communication such as context, addresser, addressee, contact, common code and message. Based on these factors, Jakobson distinguishes six functions that operate between the message and the factor: (1) referential, (2) emotive, (3) conative, (4) phatic, (5) metalinguistic and (6) poetic. He argues that for the communication to be completed, each factor must be present and investigated (Hébert). The functions will be discussed and explained further during the analysis of particular parts of the speech.
In terms of language, it is a powerful tool allowing us to connect, command, warn or welcome. According to Chilton *„what is clear is that political activity does not exist without the use of language“* (p. 6). I observed that the language of politics is important one because it shows us how those, who wish to gain power, use language, which is why politics represents one of the most attractive research field for discourse analysis. Verbal communication is crucial in political interaction, and in this regard, political speeches are just those cases where the exact choice of words may influence and persuade the audience, since language is important tool in order to merit the attention of people.
For these reasons, I have decided to analyze Barack Obama’s victory speech from 2008, because according to me, Obama is a great speaker and gifted orator who is capable of creating inspiring speeches to encourage people to higher ideas and thinking, which is essential when it comes to political speech.
In 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American president in the history of the United States. He gave his victory speech at Grand Park in Chicago on November 4, 2008., *„when he broadened his “Yes we can” campaign slogan beyond supporters and invited all Americans to share his commitment to change“* (CNN). The speech is divided into several parts such as introduction, body of speech and conclusion, however, I shall not analyze the whole speech, due to its length, I only picked some paragraphs from each part.
Throughout the analysis, it will be undertaken to decode the message with respect to the wider context, which enables us to better understand various political actions, since the context plays a significant role in understanding the message of the speech and analyzing it. Addressing all six functions will provide a broader understanding of the varied purposes that language serves. I will try to examine whether each of these functions is absent or present in Obama’s speech and if so, to argue how their coherent use produces the desired effect in the delivery of the message, and whether it fulfills all the criteria needed in a communication.
2. ANALYSIS
As Hébert explains, Jakobson’s development of the communicative functions of language was originally developed by Karl Bühler. Later on, Jakobson proposed three additional functions, making a total of six fundamental factors, each assuming an orientation within the verbal message (internet source). Jakobson’s functions are illustrated below:
This section will provide analysis of several parts from Obama’s speech according to Jakobson’s six function, and will try to examine whether all of these functions are presented in his speech.
(1) In the opening paragraph, Obama declared:
*„It’s been a long time coming, but tonight, because of what we did on this day, in this election, at this defining moment, change has come to America.”*
What is behind the message is pretty simple. Obama, as a first black American President, means a change for the country. It certainly shows that some change has come in terms of American race relations - a hope for the black American community because the race is still a matter in America, and with Obama as black president, the change has came.
Nevertheless, we need to take a look closer. One would probably says that it is just a declaration when “change“ basically means Obama becoming the first black President in the history of U.S., however there is a context behind it. I have found out that Obama actually paraphrased Sam Cook’s song called *“A Change is Gonna Come“*, which was released in 1964, when Cook sings *“It’s been a long, a long time coming, but I know a change gonna come“*. In this sense, it is like he knew that one day African American community could create political and social changes. Sam Cook knew that one day it will happen - that a change could come someday - and now it happened, hence Sam Cook’s “A Change is Gonna Come“ finally came.
Based on my observations, I presume this paragraph being **the** **metalinguistic function,** since it corresponds to the factor of context and describes particular situation. As far as we know, metalinguistic function is used to communicate a message about the message, and it is oriented towards the code (Steinberg, 2007, p. 121). In addition, this function consists of definite description as well as this particular paragraph when Obama says *„but tonight…change has come to America“ –* definite statement that something, in this case change, has come.
(2) Moving onto another example, Obama switched into more serious issues when discussing the war and the economic crisis:
| | *„Even as we stand here tonight, we know there are brave Americans waking up in the deserts of Iraq and the mountains of Afghanistan to risk their lives for us. There are mothers and fathers who will lie awake after their children fall asleep and wonder how they’ll make the mortgage, or pay their doctors bills, or save enough for their child’s college education.”* | |
This paragraph perfectly captures the essence of **the referential function**. We can observe how Obama is referring to wars in Iraq and Afghanistan where brave Americans are fighting for their country. He highlighted financial crisis with concern for family financial issues –issues that troubled many people in America.
Referential function express concrete and objective information towards the context of the message, hence “what the message is about” (Steinberg, 2007, p. 119). This function is useful in describing actions and behaviors in specific time and place (Pătruţ, 2014, p. 73). Or to put it another way, it enables us to inform about something happening in the world or describe it, in this case the wars and the economic crisis. Clearly there is no doubt what the message and its content is about; its purpose is to demonstrate people that even though this night is a celebration of the victory, somewhere else people are fighting for their lives and there are mothers who troubled for not being able to paying their bills or child’s education.
(3)
*„This election had many firsts and many stories that will be told for generations. But one that’s on my mind tonight is about a woman who cast her ballot in Atlanta. She’s a lot like the millions of others who stood in line to make their voice heard in this election except for one thing - Ann Nixon Cooper is 106 years old.”*
In the paragraph above, we can notice how communication is oriented towards the speaker of the message, hence here dominates **the** **expressive function**, because we can observe the emotional state of the speaker, Obama, when expressing emotions towards this woman - towards someone - who is probably close to him when mentioning her during his acceptance speech in front of thousands of people. According to Steinberg (2007): *„The expressive function refers to our ability to use language to communicate our emotions, beliefs and opinions as well as our attitude towards the subject matter of the communication”* (p. 119).
The feeling of emotiveness is reached by Obama’s story on 106 years old Ann Nixon Cooper. He points to the fact that Cooper was not allowed to vote at the beginning of her life. She lived long enough to remember when women and black people could not vote, but now she was can. Obama mentioned her in aim to make ordinary things extraordinary. He also reduces the masses to one person. Furthermore, he knows that the major part of his voters were old and black people, and those old people have lived long enough to understand this uneasy world and to be wise. Thus, beside the fact that he is the first black American president, this reference does not have any impact to his presidency, however, it helps to build a greater feeling of solidarity, and wanted to demonstrate his concern for people.
Moreover, Obama gets even more personal and emotional while thanking his family, and also at one point when speaking directly to his daughters, and even talking about their dog: *„Sasha and Malia I love you both more than you can imagine. And you have earned the new puppy that’s coming with us to the new White House.”* This is probably something which we would not except during political speech, however I think when giving an influential speech, it is important to work with emotions in order to get the hearts of people as well as their sympathy towards you.
(4) In terms of **the conative function,** it is demonstrated in the paragraph below:
*„There is new energy to harness and new jobs to be created; new schools to build and threats to meet, alliances to repair. The road ahead will be long. […] We may not get there in one year or even one term, but America […] I promise you – we as a people will get there.”*
To fully understand the concept of conative function, we need to define its purpose and function within the text. This type of language function is concerned with and focus on influencing the recipient of the message, in this case the audience - the citizens, and hence, is concerned with persuasion. Steinberg (2007) explains that such messages are usually intended to persuade the recipient by instructions, requests, commands or some other acts of verbal persuasion. Thus, the conative function is well illustrated in political speeches (p. 120).
In this example, Obama offers a clear promises to build new schools and give people the hope of creating new jobs, and thus, the hope for better nation. His promises are rather general and not concrete, however in this sense, he persuades people by letting them believe that all these promises will be fulfilled, even though it may not be done in one year or even one term, but eventually they will.
(5)
**The poetic function** focuses on the form of the message, the beauty of the language itself. It also refer to as the “aesthetic” function due to its intention to draw attention to the use of language, its syntax, diction or sound patterns. *„Rhyme, alliteration, punning, ambiguity and even grammatical rule-breaking are examples of the poetic function”* (Steinberg, 2007, p. 120). According to Rich (2007), it does not have an operative function only in poetry, but it also operates in slogans or in advertising because it deals with the connection between speakers (p. 11).
*“Yes we can!”*
Therefore, I have decided to choose the slogan used in Obama’s campaign “Yes We Can”. This phrase is even repeated several times in his speech to emphasize the power of that phrase (see below in Appendix section with the full transcript).
According to me, this slogan has a rhetorical effect and sounds appealing, which is one of the features of the poetic function. I think these words are very motivational, they work in multiple levels; we can either say “Yes we can win this election” or “Yes we can change something or do something”. Every political slogan, or even poetry in general, has some hidden meaning inside, and so have this particular one. Obama is saying “Yes we can” instead “Yes I can”, which means that the purpose of this slogan is about people, Americans, and their cooperation signifying that if they come together, they can achieve something, not as individuals but rather as a nation.
Hanft (2008) quoted Obama when he said: *„The truth is, actually, words do inspire, words do help people to get involved*.*”* And I could not agree more because I think that words have a power not only to manipulate with people but also to inspire people and to involve them of doing something together, and this slogan does that because it promotes the pronoun “we”, not “you”. In connection with the above, this slogan is actually associated with César Chávez and the strike during harvest season, when the phrase “Sí se puede” (“Yes it can”) was created (Mettler). Obama adapted this phrase for his own needs and chose it for his campaign because he wanted to promote the mutual unity between Americans and equality among Hispanic, black or gay community.
During Obama’s farewell address, he changed the slogan into “Yes we did” meaning the end of something in order to demonstrate that promises implied by the slogan “Yes we can” actually came to pass during his presidency. So, the question is “Did we do it?”, and the answer is “Yes we did”.
**(6)**
As regards the **phatic function**, to be honest, it was quite difficult to find some example of this particular function in Obama’s victory speech, because this type of language function is probably more suitable in face-to-face communication rather than in political speeches.
As Steinberg (2007) notes, its function is to know whether the contact is still there, or in other words, its purpose is to maintain or terminate the communication with person we are talking to (p. 120). As London (2014) argues, these expressions do not have a deep meaning, thus we can say they are meaningless and empty. For instance, phrases like “You’re welcome” or “Thank you”. Despite the fact that phatic utterances are sometimes disregarded, their presence or absence can have a profound impact upon the nature of the relationship between speakers (Cruz, 2013, p. 2).
Thus, based on these definitions I observed that the phatic function is difficult to apply in this political speech when Obama is talking about serious issues which are the exact opposite of the word meaningless or empty because his words have profound meaning. Having said that, I think that his opening phrase *„Hello Chicago”* or final line *„God bless you and God bless the United States of America”*, which Obama delivered to his audience, could fell into the definition of the phatic function, since I have found that phrases like “Hello” or “Good morning” can be applicable in this language function because they have minimal content and they does not carry so profound and powerful meaning.
So for instance, when we take a look to his final words when declaring *„God bless you…[]”*, it is just a traditional form of blessing, typical at the end of political speeches with no deeper purpose. In my opinion, it is just a way to ask God for blessing and helping the president in everything that he has to do during his presidency. According to Cambridge dictionary, it is *„said when saying goodbye to someone, to say that you hope good things will happen to them*.*”* Additionally, *„Hello Chicago”* are words that Obama begins with when greeting the audience and citizens of Chicago. It is just a polite way to say Hello before someone begins with the speech or the presentation, and so on, and in this case, it served to getting people’s attention what for people responded with a great applause. Thus, no other deeper content and meaning.
3. CONCLUSION
On the basis of the above analysis, we may come to the conclusion. The aim of this research paper was an application of Jakobson’s functions to the political speech of president Barack Obama. As we have seen above, the main representations of linguistic functions are based on the model which functions through its relations with the addresser (sender), addressee (receiver), contact, common code, message and context. The context is somewhat ambiguous, and thus it can be interpreted in more than one way as I can conclude based on the analysis of paragraphs from Obama’s victory speech.
Each of the previous paragraphs was analysed according to one function, and the aim was to find out whether the particular function can be seen in the paragraph, and if so, to explain why. As can be seen, the metalinguistic function was applied in the section where Obama is talking about the change that came to America while referring to Sam Cook’s song “Change is gonna come“– message with a code and deeper meaning. The conative and referential function were also presented in Obama’s speech, as well as the poetic function, which was able to apply to the slogan “Yes we can“. In terms of expressive function, I have found out that Obama was using storytelling to influence the audience during which he was expressing his personal emotions about an old woman Ann Nixon Cooper as well as he got personal while talking about his family. Hence, love of family and unknown people have certainly shown up in his speech and in this analysis. In the final analysis, there was a problem when finding an appropriate example of the phatic function in Obama’s speech. Ultimately, I observed that the opening paragraph *Hello Chicago* and the final one *God bless you* fall into this category based on their not so meaningful contents.
All in all, the aim of this research paper was fulfilled since I was able to apply each of Jakobson’s functions to a particular paragraph of the speech, which I have reasonably explained. Thus, the speech is completed and effective, as according to Jakobson, it is supposed to be, because the speech fulfills all the criteria needed in a communication.
From my point of view, Obama is seen as an excellent speaker because he knows how to connect with people by tapping into their emotions, moreover, he comes across as sincere man rather than someone who delivers a meaningless speech with an empty words. Given these points, Obama’s speech was good planned and structured. He knows exactly what to say and I personally think that he will be remembered as one of the most amazing speakers as well as the presidents.
4. SOURCES
CRUZ, Manuel Padilla. Teaching to Be Phatic: a Pragmatic Approach
http://personal.us.es/mpadillacruz/uploads/Book%20chapters/Teaching\_to\_be\_phatic.pdf
HANFT, Adam. Triangulation isn’t Inspiration. January 7, 2008.
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/adam-hanft/triangulation-isnt-inspir\_b\_80334.html
HÉBERT, Louis. The Functions of Language.
http://www.signosemio.com/jakobson/functions-of-language.asp
CHILTON, Paul. Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice. Routledge, London. 2004. [available online]
LONDON, Sara. A word about… the phatic function of language. January 24, 2014.
https://teaonthebeach.wordpress.com/2014/01/24/a-word-about-the-phatic-function-of-language/
METTLER, Katie. Obama’s “Yes We Can“ almost didn’t happen. You can thank Michelle for saving it. January 11.
PĂTRUŢ, Bogdan & PĂTRUŢ, Monica. Social Media in Politics: *Case Studies on the Political Power of Social Media*. Springer. 2014. [available online]
RICH, Jennifer. An Introduction to Critical Theory. Humanities-Ebooks. 2007. [available online]
STEINBERG, Sheila. An introduction to communication studies. Juta & Co, Ltd. Mercury Crescent, Wetton. 2007. [available online]
https://books.google.sk/books?id=g8GRgXYeo\_kC&printsec=frontcover&hl=sk#v=onepage&q&f=false
“All right?” – the Phatic function
http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/11disc/phatic.html
President Obama’s Election Night Victory Speech. November 6, 2012 in Chicago, Illinois.
Barack Obama‘s Victory Speech.
http://changingminds.org/analysis/obama\_victory\_speech.htm
Change is Gonna Come Meaning.
https://www.shmoop.com/change-is-gonna-come/meaning.html
Transcript: „This is your victory,“ says Obama.
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/obama.transcript/
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/god-bless-you
5. APPENDIX
Transcript of Obama’s victory speech (2008):
Hello, Chicago.
If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible, who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time, who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer.
It’s the answer told by lines that stretched around schools and churches in numbers this nation has never seen, by people who waited three hours and four hours, many for the first time in their lives, because they believed that this time must be different, that their voices could be that difference.
It’s the answer spoken by young and old, rich and poor, Democrat and Republican, black, white, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, gay, straight, disabled and not disabled. Americans who sent a message to the world that we have never been just a collection of individuals or a collection of red states and blue states. We are, and always will be, the United States of America.
It’s the answer that led those who’ve been told for so long by so many to be cynical and fearful and doubtful about what we can achieve to put their hands on the arc of history and bend it once more toward the hope of a better day.
It’s been a long time coming, but tonight, because of what we did on this date in this election at this defining moment change has come to America.
A little bit earlier this evening, I received an extraordinarily gracious call from Sen. McCain. Sen. McCain fought long and hard in this campaign. And he’s fought even longer and harder for the country that he loves. He has endured sacrifices for America that most of us cannot begin to imagine. We are better off for the service rendered by this brave and selfless leader.
I congratulate him; I congratulate Gov. Palin for all that they’ve achieved. And I look forward to working with them to renew this nation’s promise in the months ahead.
I want to thank my partner in this journey, a man who campaigned from his heart, and spoke for the men and women he grew up with on the streets of Scranton and rode with on the train home to Delaware, the vice president-elect of the United States, Joe Biden.
And I would not be standing here tonight without the unyielding support of my best friend for the last 16 years the rock of our family, the love of my life, the nation’s next first lady Michelle Obama.
Sasha and Malia I love you both more than you can imagine. And you have earned the new puppy that’s coming with us to the new White House.
And while she’s no longer with us, I know my grandmother’s watching, along with the family that made me who I am. I miss them tonight. I know that my debt to them is beyond measure.
To my sister Maya, my sister Alma, all my other brothers and sisters, thank you so much for all the support that you’ve given me. I am grateful to them.
And to my campaign manager, David Plouffe, the unsung hero of this campaign, who built the best – the best political campaign, I think, in the history of the United States of America.
To my chief strategist David Axelrod who’s been a partner with me every step of the way.
To the best campaign team ever assembled in the history of politics you made this happen, and I am forever grateful for what you’ve sacrificed to get it done.
But above all, I will never forget who this victory truly belongs to. It belongs to you. It belongs to you.
I was never the likeliest candidate for this office. We didn’t start with much money or many endorsements. Our campaign was not hatched in the halls of Washington. It began in the backyards of Des Moines and the living rooms of Concord and the front porches of Charleston. It was built by working men and women who dug into what little savings they had to give 5and5 and 5and10 and $20 to the cause.
It grew strength from the young people who rejected the myth of their generation’s apathy who left their homes and their families for jobs that offered little pay and less sleep.
It drew strength from the not-so-young people who braved the bitter cold and scorching heat to knock on doors of perfect strangers, and from the millions of Americans who volunteered and organized and proved that more than two centuries later a government of the people, by the people, and for the people has not perished from the Earth.
This is your victory.
And I know you didn’t do this just to win an election. And I know you didn’t do it for me.
You did it because you understand the enormity of the task that lies ahead. For even as we celebrate tonight, we know the challenges that tomorrow will bring are the greatest of our lifetime – two wars, a planet in peril, the worst financial crisis in a century.
Even as we stand here tonight, we know there are brave Americans waking up in the deserts of Iraq and the mountains of Afghanistan to risk their lives for us.
There are mothers and fathers who will lie awake after the children fall asleep and wonder how they’ll make the mortgage or pay their doctors’ bills or save enough for their child’s college education.
There’s new energy to harness, new jobs to be created, new schools to build, and threats to meet, alliances to repair.
The road ahead will be long. Our climb will be steep. We may not get there in one year or even in one term. But, America, I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight that we will get there. I promise you, we as a people will get there.
There will be setbacks and false starts. There are many who won’t agree with every decision or policy I make as president. And we know the government can’t solve every problem.
But I will always be honest with you about the challenges we face. I will listen to you, especially when we disagree. And, above all, I will ask you to join in the work of remaking this nation, the only way it’s been done in America for 221 years – block by block, brick by brick, calloused hand by calloused hand.
What began 21 months ago in the depths of winter cannot end on this autumn night.
This victory alone is not the change we seek. It is only the chance for us to make that change. And that cannot happen if we go back to the way things were.
It can’t happen without you, without a new spirit of service, a new spirit of sacrifice.
So let us summon a new spirit of patriotism, of responsibility, where each of us resolves to pitch in and work harder and look after not only ourselves but each other.
Let us remember that, if this financial crisis taught us anything, it’s that we cannot have a thriving Wall Street while Main Street suffers.
In this country, we rise or fall as one nation, as one people. Let’s resist the temptation to fall back on the same partisanship and pettiness and immaturity that has poisoned our politics for so long.
Let’s remember that it was a man from this state who first carried the banner of the Republican Party to the White House, a party founded on the values of self-reliance and individual liberty and national unity.
Those are values that we all share. And while the Democratic Party has won a great victory tonight, we do so with a measure of humility and determination to heal the divides that have held back our progress.
As Lincoln said to a nation far more divided than ours, we are not enemies but friends. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection.
And to those Americans whose support I have yet to earn, I may not have won your vote tonight, but I hear your voices. I need your help. And I will be your president, too.
And to all those watching tonight from beyond our shores, from parliaments and palaces, to those who are huddled around radios in the forgotten corners of the world, our stories are singular, but our destiny is shared, and a new dawn of American leadership is at hand.
To those – to those who would tear the world down: We will defeat you. To those who seek peace and security: We support you. And to all those who have wondered if America’s beacon still burns as bright: Tonight we proved once more that the true strength of our nation comes not from the might of our arms or the scale of our wealth, but from the enduring power of our ideals: democracy, liberty, opportunity and unyielding hope.
That’s the true genius of America: that America can change. Our union can be perfected. What we’ve already achieved gives us hope for what we can and must achieve tomorrow.
This election had many firsts and many stories that will be told for generations. But one that’s on my mind tonight’s about a woman who cast her ballot in Atlanta. She’s a lot like the millions of others who stood in line to make their voice heard in this election except for one thing: Ann Nixon Cooper is 106 years old.
She was born just a generation past slavery; a time when there were no cars on the road or planes in the sky; when someone like her couldn’t vote for two reasons – because she was a woman and because of the color of her skin.
And tonight, I think about all that she’s seen throughout her century in America – the heartache and the hope; the struggle and the progress; the times we were told that we can’t, and the people who pressed on with that American creed: Yes we can.
At a time when women’s voices were silenced and their hopes dismissed, she lived to see them stand up and speak out and reach for the ballot. Yes we can.
When there was despair in the dust bowl and depression across the land, she saw a nation conquer fear itself with a New Deal, new jobs, a new sense of common purpose. Yes we can.
When the bombs fell on our harbor and tyranny threatened the world, she was there to witness a generation rise to greatness and a democracy was saved. Yes we can.
She was there for the buses in Montgomery, the hoses in Birmingham, a bridge in Selma, and a preacher from Atlanta who told a people that “We Shall Overcome.” Yes we can.
A man touched down on the moon, a wall came down in Berlin, a world was connected by our own science and imagination. And this year, in this election, she touched her finger to a screen, and cast her vote, because after 106 years in America, through the best of times and the darkest of hours, she knows how America can change. Yes we can.
America, we have come so far. We have seen so much. But there is so much more to do. So tonight, let us ask ourselves – if our children should live to see the next century; if my daughters should be so lucky to live as long as Ann Nixon Cooper, what change will they see? What progress will we have made?
This is our chance to answer that call. This is our moment.
This is our time, to put our people back to work and open doors of opportunity for our kids; to restore prosperity and promote the cause of peace; to reclaim the American dream and reaffirm that fundamental truth, that, out of many, we are one; that while we breathe, we hope. And where we are met with cynicism and doubts and those who tell us that we can’t, we will respond with that timeless creed that sums up the spirit of a people: Yes, we can.
Thank you. God bless you. And may God bless the United States of America