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Geography in ancient India refers to the metaphysical exposition of interconnectedness of man with nature aiming to understand humanity's residence on the earth. In geography, the " geo-" refers to the biological idea of mother Earth, Gaia, and "-graphy " to a cultural connotation referring to subjective meaning of place – with human interference and connectedness (e.g. love) space transfers to place. This was a kind of " deep " geography, where historical-cultural-ecological-landscape concerns altogether make a sense of meaning and understanding. In the present era of 'global understanding', the messages of geography in ancient India is being accepted as a light-tower for ecological awareness that commonly envisioned in the frame of 'sacred ecology'. Zukav (1979: 217) remarks that " Hindu mythology is virtually a large scientific discovery. Hindu deities such as Shiva and Vishnu continuously dance the creation and destruction of universe ". The relevance for life is inherent in the Hindu religion with its pantheon of Gods; the Hindu view is God-filled space – of an animate universe. Initiated in the historical past, the Vedic, Puranic literature and treatises fully describe the sense of respect for nature and attempt to make awareness of the crisis calling for profound changes in the way human beings relate to the natural world (cf. Chaitanya 1983). Some of these examples are illustrated here. Attempts have also been made to elucidate the geography in ancient India, however most of such works considered the notion and framework of concept of the universe and the earth, astronomical and climatic aspects, the places known and the settlement patterns (cf. Dubey 1967). The description of regional identity and regional geography (natural and cultural landscapes) has further been taken into account with reference to the Puranas while emphasising some notions of cosmogony and cosmology (cf. Ali 1983), however less emphasis is laid on the 'geographical thought' and metaphysical context, which may be compared with the scientific notion of modern geography. In fact, most of these studies deal with literary interpretation of the epics and ancient literature (Dhussa 2008: 74-75).
Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (ed.) History of Ancient India, Vol. IX: Science and Technology, Medicine , 2023
The research dealing with ancient India, has put less emphasis on the ‘geographical thought’ and metaphysical context, which may be compared with the scientific notion of modern geography; some such examples are presented here. The Vedic sages, living close to nature were enlightened by the inherent messages that they communicated, taught, professed, and transferred to the seekers and followers through writings and sacred teachings. Among such thoughts, different attributes and dimensions are narrated; here the chosen ones included narrating the manifestation of the cosmos and human transcendence, illustrated with evolution and unity, the eternity of time, spirality of the cosmic rhythm, spiritual correspondences, the Mother Earth as Goddess, and some messages for the sustainable future are described in nutshell. Together with the physical order exists an invisible principle of order linking the human soul to the earth and further up to the stars. This way one can propose micro-, meso- and macro cosmos. The harmonic integrity in Cosmos Spirit Man has been a major issue of debate in ancient mythologies. Let us re-interpret, re-orient, and re-appraise the deep issues of Indian thought, so as to make the prophecy a reality. Keywords: manifestation, eternity, transcendence, sacredscape, Kālī, Vedas, Purāṇas.
From the viewpoint of modern astrophysics, cosmology is the study of the history, structure, and dynamics of the universe. Many of the traditional cosmological concepts of Indian culture have general counterparts in astrophysical cosmology. For example, the parallelism of the macrocosm and microcosm is an important concept for both approaches; our terrestrial physics is mirrored in the stars, galaxies, and distant quasars. Gravity and other long-range forces thread the entire universe. The geometry of Indian temples, cities, and pilgrimage landscapes often replicates the larger cosmos. Modern physical science relies heavily on quantitative measurement, and according to the architectural traditions of India, the structure of a home, temple, and city is based upon a shared religious symbolism, which involves the bringing of cosmic order out of primordial chaos partly through the act of measurement (Malville, 1992; Zimmer, 1946). Measurement as cosmogenesis is asserted in many texts of Indian philosophy and mythology. Purusha, the architect of the universe, " bears the measuring rod, knows division, and thinks himself composed of parts " (Vāyu Purāṇa 4: 30–1: Kramrisch, 1946, p. 131). The universe was created as Purusha was divided into parts, many of which are the measured and ordered features of our current world such as verses, chants, social orders, time, and temples, and cities. The universe is understood to have spread outward from a primordial center into the four cardinal directions forming a square (Kramrisch, 1946, Malville, 1991; Vatsyayan, 1983). The geometric structure of the universe, as described in the sixth century AD Bṛhat Samhitā, was represented by the vāstu‐maṇḍala, usually consisting of 64 or 81 squares or padas, which was also the fundamental plan for houses, palaces, and cities. The Bṛhat Samhitā was primarily a treatise on astrology and astronomy, which provided instructions for determining auspicious dates for laying out the foundation maṇḍala of a building or city as well as instructions for its precise orientation to the cardinal directions using shadow casting by gnomons. Major features of the vāstu‐maṇḍala are (1) true cardinality, i.e., parallelism to the fundamental directions in the celestial realm; (2) a center, out of which creation has emerged; (3) mathematical division of interior space into squares or padas; (4) the organization of space according to socioreligious rules, assigning specific padas to gods, kings, and social classes; and (5) a boundary that represents the barrier between internal order and external chaos. As organized by the vāstu‐maṇḍala, the religiously planned city was meant to be a geometrically exact copy of the macrocosm with its pantheon of gods. The symbolism of the city and temple included the point source of creation, the garbha gṛha (womb chamber) of the temple, and the cosmic tree separating heaven and earth, the axis mundi, and the surrounding squares were assigned to 44 Vedic gods, of whom eight were the all‐important protector guardians of the cardinal points. The royal palace was to be constructed on one‐ninth the total town area to the north of the center. A few of India's ancient cities have achieved the ideal of the vāstu‐maṇḍala in their design, such as the excavated sites of Sisupalgarh near
2013
This study provides insight into how and why process modelling may help to better understand Praśastapāda's philosophical system. A graphical representation of a system shows the details of a theory and the interaction of theories in a clear and accessible way. Thus, process modelling is particularly useful to analyse the coherence of a system and to comprehend a system as a whole. First, some general information is provided regarding the project and the methodology. Second, parts of the process of perception are discussed to demonstrate the strength of this approach.
The deeper sense of geographic concerns employ to investigate the inherent power of sacred places by searching cosmic geometries embedded in ritual landscapes and the spatial orientations towards astronomical phenomena. Such sacred cities can be considered to be a mesocosm, geometrically linking the celestial realm of the macrocosm with the microcosmic realm of human consciousness and cultural traditions of text, tradition, and rituals. The Hindu literature, both the classical and modern, is full of reverence for ‘Mother India’ (Bhārat Mātā) and ‘Mother Earth’ (Bhū Devī). The ‘land (and the earth)’ is personified goddess. This image, as described in literary tradition, is conceptualised by relating all geographical features as lived and imagined landscapes, viz. mountains, hills, rivers, caves, unique sites, etc. to the mother earth and in that sense those sites and places automatically becomes part of the sacred geography of ancient India (cf. Eck 2012: 11). Every region or place has its own sacred geography where humans meet with the divinities and ultimate emerged the microcosmic web which are always regulated and expanded by the continuity of rituals, festivities and celebrations. Better known expression of the Nature-Man interfaces through spirituality is presented in the form of sacred geometry and maṇḍalas (i.e. geometric arrangements of esoteric symbols or symbolic representations of the abodes of various deities). The sacred landscape combines the absoluteness of space, relativeness of places and comprehensiveness of landscape; thus altogether result to a ‘wholeness’ carrying the inherent and imposed spirit of ‘holiness’, which is to be called ‘sacredscapes’. In Hindu tradition this is called ‘divya kṣetra’ (a pious/ divine territory).
India had been colonized for many centuries by different colonizers. Unbelievable gains of other colonies in India and its own wealth amassed in no time in this exotic country, made the British to conspire with the native rulers and gain from their intrarivalry. British Raj absolutely enjoyed their reign in India for nearly two centuries. The period between late nineteenth century and up to 1947 is considered as colonial era in what British made Indians to accept and follow their policies. In 1947 they left India divided, this great divide in history remembered as Partition 1947. This current research paper discusses the consequences of partition through close study Qurratulain Hyder' novel My Temples too.
Varanasi (Benares), known as the microcosm of India and the most sacred city of Hindu religion, has maintained its cosmic layout which developed in the historical past. The passage from macrocosmos (heaven) into mesocosmos (earth) and further down into microcosmos (the temple, or body) is made spatially visible and is regulated by the network of pilgrimage routes ― this is what we call pilgrimage mandala. In Varanasi five of the various pilgrimage circuits are well developed; taken as a sequence leading from outer to inner space, they reveal parallels between macro-, meso- and microcosmos and the related transcendental powers. Moreover, the spatial arrangement of the 56 shrines of Ganesha (“Elephant-headed God”) and the routes following Vinayaka’s pilgrimage journey, also form a mandala representing the product of 8 directions and 7 layers of atmosphere, thus the number 56. These aspects are described and the notion of cosmogonic integrity is discussed. Résumé Varanasi (Benares) est connue pour être un microcosme de 1’Inde et la ville la plus sacrée de l’hindouisme. Elle a consumé l’aménagement spatial développé au cours de son passe historique. Ses constructions, combinées à un réseau de voies de pèlerinages, mettent en évidence au niveau spatial et structurent un passage du macrocosme (ciel) au mésocosme (terre) et finalement au microcosme (temple, ou corps) ― c’est ce que nous désignons du terme de mandala de pèlerinage. Cinq des différents circuits de pèlerinage de Varanasi sont bien développés; si on les considère comme représentant un passage de l’espace extérieur à l’espace intérieur, on découvre des parallèles entre macro-, méso-et microcosme ainsi qu’avec des puissances transcendantes. De plus, l’organisation spatiale des 56 sanctuaires de Ganesha (“le dieu- à -tête-d’ê1êphant” ») et les routes qui suivent le pèlerinage de Vinayaka forment aussi un mandala représentant le produit de 8 directions et de 7 couches atmosphériques, donc le nombre 56. Ces aspects sont décrits et la notion d’intégrité cosmogonique est discutée.