THE MARTYRS OF CAESAREA: THE URBAN CONTEXT (original) (raw)
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Journal of Theological Studies, 2019
This article offers a fresh analysis of the Martyrdom of Julius the Veteran, a martyr act narrating the trial and execution of a Christian military veteran of the legio XI Claudia stationed at Durostorum in Moesia Minor in 304 CE. The article establishes a literary tendency in the martyr acta whereby a correlation is made between increasing or decreasing descriptions of violence and increasing or decreasing demonization of the persecutors. A close analysis of the exchange between Julius and the legatus Augustalis Maximus, specifically of the modifiers Satanae and subdolus in Julius' rejection of Maximus' attempt to resolve the case without Julius dying or losing honour, results in a more nuanced look at the concept of Romanitas and Christian-Roman identity boundaries than has previously been attempted for this military martyr act.
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This MA thesis will discuss the reception of common, non-scholarly polytheists (pagans) to the persecution of Christians from the early empire until the Great Persecution (303-313, 322-324). Though modern scholars have addressed this issue and asserted that there was a change in attitude, many have not developed this into anything more than a passing statement. When chronologically analyzing the Christian acts, passions, letters, and speeches recounting the deaths of martyrs deemed historically authentic, and accounting for the literary and biblical topoi, we can demonstrate that the position of non-Christians changed. The methodology of this thesis will chronologically assess the martyr acts, passions, speeches, and letters which are historically accurate after literary and biblical topoi are addressed. These sources are available in the appendix. Throughout this analysis, we will see two currents. The primary current will seek to discern the change in pagan reception of anti-Christian persecution, while the second current will draw attention to the Roman concept of religio and superstitio, both important in understanding civic religion which upheld the pax deorum and defined loyalty to the Roman order through material sacrifices and closely connected to one's citizenship. Religio commonly denoted proper ritual practices, while superstitio defined irregular forms of worship which may endanger the state. As we will see, Christians were feared and persecuted because it was believed that their cult would anger the gods and disrupt the cosmological order. The analysis will begin with a discussion centered on the "accusatory" approach to the Christian church during the first two centuries when the Roman state relied on provincial delatores (denounces) to legislate against the cult. During the first two centuries persecution was mostly provincial, sporadic and was not centrally-directed. We will see that provincial mobs were the most violent during the first two centuries. During the third century the actions of the imperial authority changed and began following an "inquisitorial" approach with the accession of Emperors Decius and Valerian, the former enacting an edict of universal sacrifices while the latter undertook the first Empire-wide initiative to crush the Christian community. It is during the third century that the attitude of nonelite pagans may have begun to change. This will be suggested when discussing the martyrdom of Pionius. When discussing the fourth century Great Persecution under the Diocletianic tetrarchy, it will be suggested that the pagan populace may have begun to look upon the small Christian community sympathetically. The thesis will conclude with the victory of Constantine over Licinius and the slow but steady rise of Christianity to prominence, becoming the official religio of the empire with traditional paganism relegated to the status of a superstitio.
Persecution of Christians During the Reign of Emperor Licinius
Przegląd Nauk Historycznych, 2023
Licinius was a ruler whose attitude towards Christians changed over the years. First, he guaranteed freedom of religion to them; then, he persecuted them. This article aims to analyse how these persecutions are described by sources originating from the period during or shortly after the reign of Licinius. The analysis of the sources shows that the details of the persecution under Licinius are known only from the works of Eusebius of Caesarea. However, although he portrays Licinius in a negative light only to justify the war between him and Constantine, other sources confirm that there was indeed persecution though limited in scope under Licinius.
European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 2012
Persecution and martyrdom among adherents of various religions of the world have been a critical issue. In some religions it is honored and given a prominent place and the martyrs seen as having gone to paradise. In others they go as far as killing themselves in their bid to be seen as martyrs and inherit a place of prominent in the world to come. This study examined persecutions and martyrdom among Christians in the Roman Empire between AD 54 and AD100. It traces the history of persecution of Christians from the time of Emperor Nero to Domitian. The paper also traces brief biography of some emperors and their achievements within the period. The paper concludes with a lesson for the 21 st century church. It recommends among others that Christians today should return to the kind of dogged faith that characterized the early Christians that made them grow in number and in strength. They should not resort to retaliation as has been the case in many instances but to turn vengeance to God if they are to be seen and known as Christians indeed.
Roman Legionary AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great (proof)
Osprey Publishing, 2015
Diocletian and Constantine were the greatest of the later Roman emperors, and their era marks the climax of the traditional legionary system-Diocletian created more legions than any emperor since Augustus. Most frontier provinces were defended by a pair of legions, and field armies were composed of detachments drawn from those legions. Diocletian thus continued a centuries-old practice. However, he also began a process of dividing legions, including his new creations, into 'half-legions' and the detachments withdrawn for field army service, or garrison duties in foreign provinces, tended not to return to their parent formations. They became small, independent 'legions'. This ensured the permanent break-up of the classic Roman legion of ten cohorts, and those attached to the increasingly permanent imperial field armies achieved elite status and better terms of service, while the frontier legions were essentially downgraded. Constantine began the process of formalizing the division of the army into elite comitatenses (field army units) and ripenses or limitanei (river bank or frontier units) in ad 325. However, the fully developed Late Roman legion of the mid-and late 4th century ad lies beyond the scope of this book. The legionary forces of ad 284-337, organized in cohorts and centuries and led by prefects, praepositi and centurions, would have been recognizable to Roman generals of earlier eras, and legionaries continued to form the backbone of the army. cHRONOLOGY (All dates AD) 284 Assassination of Numerian; Diocles, commander of the protectores, is proclaimed emperor and takes the name Diocletian. 285 Carinus, brother and co-emperor of Numerian, defeats usurper Julianus at Verona but is in turn defeated by Diocletian at the Margus. Diocletian appoints Maximian Caesar (junior emperor); Maximian defeats the Bagaudae and repels German invasion of Gaul. Diocletian defeats the Sarmatians. 286 Maximian promoted to Augustus (senior emperor). Revolt of Carausius in Britain and northern Gaul. ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 284-337 Diocletian depicted in the typical fashion of a 'soldieremperor' of the late 3rd century ad, with radiate crown and a practical short, cropped hair. He is unshaven because he was continually on campaign or labouring on behalf of the Empire. The reverse celebrates 'the harmony of the army'. (© RHC Archive) 286-287 German raids across the Rhine into Roman territory. Maximian leads major punitive expedition into Germany. 288 Frankish king Gennoboudes submits to Maximian. 289 Diocletian campaigns against the Sarmatians. Failure of Maximian's naval operations against Carausius. 290 Diocletian's second campaign against the Saracens. 293 Diocletian establishes the Tetrarchy with Constantius and Galerius as Caesars. Constantius captures Boulogne and ejects Carausius' forces from Gaul; Carausius assassinated and replaced by Allectus in Britain. Constantius defeats German invasion of Batavia. Revolt in Upper Egypt. Maximian. His loyalty to Diocletian was unswerving, but he chafed in retirement and tried to usurp Maxentius and then Constantine, who forced him to commit suicide. (© G. Dall'Orto) 6 Galerius defeats Egyptian rebels. 295 Galerius campaigns against the Persians. 296 Constantius and praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus recapture Britain. Maximian holds Rhine frontier and then campaigns in Spain. Diocletian defeats the Quadi, campaigns against the Carpi, and then conducts operations against Persia. 297 Maximian campaigns against Quinquegentiani in Mauretania. Galerius defeated by Narses I of Persia near Carrhae. Domitianus and Achilles revolt in Egypt. 297-298 Diocletian besieges Alexandria and defeats Egyptian rebels. 298 Maximian campaigns in Tripolitania. Galerius defeats Narses in Armenia and captures Ctesiphon. 299/300 Purge of Christians from the Roman Army. Galerius campaigns against the Marcomanni. 300/1 Constantius defeats the Franks. 301 Galerius campaigns against the Carpi. 302 Galerius fights the Carpi and Sarmatians. 302 Constantius defeats the Alamanni at Lingones. 303 Galerius campaigns against the Carpi. Constantius is victorious over the Germans at Vindonissa. 304 Constantius repels German raiders. Diocletian defeats the Carpi. 305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian; Constantius and Galerius become senior emperors with Severus and Maximinus as their Caesars; Constantius defeats the Picts. 306 Death of Constantius at York; his eldest son Constantine is declared emperor by the army in Britain. Maxentius is elevated by the Praetorian Guard in Rome and calls his father, Maximian, out of retirement. 306/7 Galerius achieves victories over the Sarmatians. Constantine fights the Franks. 307 Severus, official senior emperor in the West, marches on Rome to eject Maxentius, but his army deserts to Maximian; Severus is imprisoned and later executed. Galerius invades Italy and approaches Rome, but is forced to withdraw when his soldiers start to desert to Maxentius and Maximian. 308 Constantine attacks the Bructeri and bridges the Rhine at Cologne. Domitius Alexander revolts against Maxentius in Africa. Conference of official emperors at Carnuntum: Maximian compelled to retire again; Licinius made Augustus and charged with defeating Maxentius. 308-309 Galerius fights the Carpi. Licinius campaigns against Maxentius' forces in Dalmatia and northeast Italy. 309 Domitius Alexander is defeated by Maxentius' praetorian prefect, Volusianus. 310 Constantine campaigns against the Franks. Maximian revolts against Constantine but is defeated at Marseille and commits suicide. Maximinus campaigns on the Constantine in ad 307/8. Charismatic and supremely ambitious, he fought three civil wars to bring the whole of the Roman Empire under his rule. (© RHC Archive) Persian frontier. Licinius defeats the Sarmatians. Death of Galerius. Maximinus attempts to seize Licinius' Asian provinces. Constantine invades Italy, captures Segusium, and defeats Maxentius' armies at Turin, Brixia and Verona; Constantine advances on Rome; defeat and death of Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. Maximinus campaigning in Armenia. Death of Diocletian. Maximinus invades Thrace but is defeated by Licinius at Campus Ergenus; Maximinus commits suicide; Licinius secures his position by ordering the executions of the families of Diocletian, Galerius and Maximinus. Constantine campaigns on the Lower Rhine. 313/4 Licinius campaigns on the Persian frontier. Constantine campaigning in Germany. 314/5 Licinius fights the Sarmatians. Constantine defeats Licinius at Cibalae. Licinius defeated at Adrianople but turns Constantine's position at Beroea and forces a negotiated settlement; he cedes his European territories, with the exception of the diocese of Thrace, to Constantine. Licinius campaigns against the Sarmatians. Crispus, son of Constantine, campaigns against the Franks. Constantine defeats Sarmatian invaders at Campona, Margus and Bononia and pursues them across the Danube. Crispus campaigns on the Rhine. Constantine defeats Gothic incursion. Licinius defeated at Adrianople and besieged in Byzantium by Constantine; Crispus defeats Licinius' fleet in the Hellespont; Constantine defeats Licinius and his Gothic allies at Chrysopolis; Licinius abdicates. Empire reunited under Constantine. Licinius is accused of plotting against Constantine and executed. Constantine executes Crispus (son by his first marriage) and Fausta (his second wife) following a mysterious scandal. Constantine bridges the Danube at Oescus and defeats the Goths; he proceeds to campaign on the Rhine. Constantinus, son of Constantine, campaigns against the Alamanni. Constantine wins major Gothic victory. Constantine campaigns against the Sarmatians. Constantine campaigns north of the Danube and takes the title Dacicus Maximus to celebrate the reconquest of former Roman territory. Constantine prepares for war with Persia but falls ill and dies at Nicomedia. Maxentius was overlooked in the succession of ad 305, but in 306 he was elevated by the Praetorian Guard. He was the last emperor to rule from Rome.