WIVES, MOTHERS AND WORKERS IN AND OUT THE DOMESTIC SPHERE (original) (raw)

Gender and Economic Life Through the Sociological Perspective

Godišen zbornik - Filozofski fakultet na Univerzitetot, Skopje, 2022

New conceptions of gender built on the foundations of individual perception and freedom in the choice of gender roles have achieved rapid affirmation, among other things, thanks to the public policies that have shaped the so-called political feminism. The sociological analyzes of this instant and uncritical approach in the development of the concept of "post-gender society" emphasize the need to connect it with the analyses of the existing social structures, which indicate an enormous increase in social inequalities. The text below elaborates on some sociological dilemmas about the state of the social sciences in relation to public gender policies, dilemmas regarding the position of women in the sphere of economics where discrimination is significantly present despite the outreach programs and budget lines for public policy making.

Rejuvenating the gendered beliefs: From a socio-cultural perspective

2017

Reflections of relationships, actions, interactions, beliefs, norms, values, etc. often reinforce popular notions concerning gender, that women differs from men and the very fact of this difference is a 'natural' part of our genetic makeup. Gender, according to sociologists, refers to the meanings a society gives to masculinity and femininity. Gender is not just an identity or status; it is a continual process of negotiation. Men are expected to maintain masculinity that includes toughness, bravado, strength, assurance, and confidence, all with little display of emotion. Women are expected to perform femininity that exudes beauty, caring, nurturance, neediness, compassion, and complete with every range of possible emotion. Grounded in the notion of gender differences are gender inequalities which discriminates females from males, and holds that masculinity means domination for they had the power or ability to carry out, in the Weberian word his (sic) will against another, while femininity means subjugation for being powerless. This paper aims to study the everyday life accounts of individuals, be it male or female, usually explains the expected roles and lifestyles of the gendered groups; and how they should acquire the said norms leading to the different forms of inequality that remains underneath sometimes ignorantly, but many a times more consciously and profoundly, for everyday life is organized in ways that constantly distinguish women from men.

Gender Economics by Vibhuti Patel

Concepts in Gender Economics ‘Sex’ Versus ‘Gender’ Sex is a biological term and gender refers to the sex of the individual after socialization. Sex refers to biological difference between men and women. Gender is a social construct that defines social relationship between men and women. Women belong to the feminine gender because during the process of growing up , certain culturally constructed feminine traits are inculcated into them, right from the birth. Oppression and Exploitation Any form of dehumnisation and degradation, violence and injustice, terrorization and humiliation, intimidation and threat, subordination and discrimination is considered as ‘OPPRESSION’, while ‘Exploitation’ has an economic connotation. In a Marxian sense, it is an extraction of ‘surplus labour’ (that generates profit) over and above ‘necessary labour’ that an individual does for his/her subsistence. Socialisation Socialisation is defined as the process through which the self acquires the rules, social recipes, conceptions of appropriate conduct and knowledge that allows them to act in their socio-cultural-political world. It is a mechanism of cultural transmission. Gender socialization means the process by which the individual is taught to internalize socially determined values of appropriate masculine traits and feminine traits. Social Construction It is the process by which men and women are moulded into the culture of the group and thereby become accepted members of the group/community/society and measure up to their expectations. Deconstruction and Reconstruction They are the analytical tools to examine individuals unfolding capacity to complex forms of behaviour and direct those capacities to now ethos/values to create new personalities. In gender economics, these analytical tools are used to bring a change from ‘gender biased’ or ‘gender neutral’ attitude to ‘gender aware’ and ‘gender sensitive’ attitude. Patriarchy Patriarchy is an institution that perpetuates male domination and female subordination. It sustains power relations that discriminate against girls and women in the households and in the economy. It attributes ‘private’ realm to women and ‘public’ domain to men. Pillars of patriarchy are family, kinship network, state, religion and media- PANCH MAHABHOOTA. In a patriarchal society, the line of inheritance passes from father to son known as Patrilineage. The patriarchal order is Patrilocal i.e after marriage, the bride is expected to go to the groom’s residence. Matriarchy Matriarchal institutions are mother centered. In this system, the line of inheritance is from mother to daughter, known as Matrilineage. After marriage, groom goes to brides house termed as Matrilocal. Trends in Feminism a. Liberal Feminists- Those who focus on the constitutional guarantees of equal treatment of men and women are known as liberal feminists. b. Marxist Feminsts- Those who locate women’s subordination in a class contradictions are known to be Marxist feminists. c. Radical Feminists consider ‘patriarchy’ as main culprit for women’s woes. d. Socialist Feminists believe that women’s predicaments are determined by the complex interplay of class, caste, race, religion, ethnicity with patriarchy. Hence the need for deconstructing patriarchy in a different socio-cultural, geo-political and historical contexts. e. Psycho Analytical Feminists focus on individual journeys of women to arrive at mental make up and internalization of values by the people concerned. They critique Freud for its misogyny but also acknowledge Freud’s analysis of childhood experiences playing important role in the rest of the life. f. Post Modern Feminists contest hegemony of meta theories and dominant discourses and bring to the fore the voice of the subjugated, oppressed and marginalized. They emphasise ‘decentreing’ from the mainstream. g. Eco-feminists believe that women’s role in the subsistence economy is crucial for the survival of the humankind. Women have symbiotic relationship with mother-nature. Male dominated development models are violent towards mother earth and women. h. Black Feminists- Race is the central reality for the black feminists though they also challenge the patriarchal/male domination. i. Womanist- Womanism is a contribution of Afro American feminists who believe that in spite of barbaric experiences of slavery, subjugation and horror the black culture/celebrations have survived due to women’s resilience. There is a need to promote this celebrations/cultural legacies thro’ heritage of oral histories, legend, grandmothers’ stories. They believe that the non-while and coloured women must be proud of HERSTORY instead of aping the white, consumerist, oppressive male culture.

Women in the Turn of Contemporary Social Change

Economy Business, 2014

Modern, truly civilized society is more and more conscious of the roll and significance of women for the total social development and its changes and it gives them, in the broadest sense of social conduct, more and more possibilities to manifest their work, intellectual, organizational, and other values. It is also confirmed from the level of their political, economic (entrepreneurial), management, and social conduct which differentiate in many cultural environments, depending on the country, the orientation towards political parties, triteness of the local community, defining the position within the organization, modernity of the family, and real possibility of interpreting those values. Similarly, it is clear that, in principle, there are still many obstacles, antagonisms, prejudices and suspicions that hinder women in their overall social engagement, often consciously or less consciously (traditionally) rated, which ultimately has still resulted in social delay in terms of accelerating the pace of changing business policies, economic conditionality, entrepreneurial restraint, disadvantage and inequality based on gender differences, as well as exaggerated one-dimensionality and calibration of all segments of society development on the basis of the male orientation and their perception of the needs and solving social priorities.

Social Construction of Gender 2008

This paper is an overview of how gender is socially constructed. It discusses how the biological basis to the differences between the sexes does not explain their lived differences and inequalities. The paper looks at the sex-gender distinction and the different explanations that have been given for the near universal inequality between men and women. A discussion on gender regimes in different domains of social life follows one on how religion and kinship shape particular constructions of gender. Finally the paper discusses how various dimensions of social stratification articulate with and construct gender.

Reassessing Models in Gender and Domestic S

in S. L. Budin, M. Cifarelli, A. Garcia-Ventura, A. M. Albà (eds) Gender and Methodology in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the Second Workshop held at the Universitat de Barcelona, February 1-3, 2017. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona., 2018