Challenges and opportunities for the sustainable development of the wine tourism sector in Chile (original) (raw)

Challenges and opportunities for the sustainable development of the wine tourism sector in Chile

Eugenio Figueroa B. & Elena S. Rotarou

To cite this article: Eugenio Figueroa B. & Elena S. Rotarou (2018): Challenges and opportunities for the sustainable development of the wine tourism sector in Chile, Journal of Wine Research, DOI: 10.1080/09571264.2018.1532880

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09571264.2018.1532880

Published online: 17 Oct 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 17

View Crossmark data □\square

Challenges and opportunities for the sustainable development of the wine tourism sector in Chile

Eugenio Figueroa B. and Elena S. Rotarou
Department of Economics, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

Abstract

Enotourism has emerged as a promising, sustainable type of tourism that can provide many benefits for local, regional, and national economies. This study critically describes the current situation of the newly-introduced enotourism sector in Chile, analyses the challenges it faces, and offers possible solutions to overcome such challenges. Chile is the eighth wine-producing country in the world, and the first among New World wine regions. Due to the existence of a variety of good-quality wines and unique landscapes, Chile has begun recently to develop its enotourism industry by offering a series of attractive wine routes and wine festivals. Despite recent progress, this nascent industry faces various bottlenecks to its sustainable development, including a still incomplete infrastructure, low human capital, low coordination and governance between relevant public and private companies involved, sustainability issues, inadequate marketing and enotourism-promoting strategies, and lack of synergies with other tourism sectors. Addressing these bottlenecks is particularly important for the Chilean economy, both because at present it loses significant opportunities to generate more income from enotourism, but also because enotourism can contribute to the diversification of the economy, which currently depends heavily on extractive sectors. The suggestions proposed here can also be particularly useful for New World wine-producing countries that may face similar challenges to Chile.

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received 6 April 2017
Accepted 31 August 2018

KEYWORDS

Enotourism; wine tourism; Chile; sustainable development; governance

1. Introduction

Enotourism, wine tourism or vinitourism is one of the categories of ‘special interest tourism’ or ‘alternative forms of tourism’. It encompasses ’ … all the tourist, leisure and spare time activities, dedicated to the discovery and to the cultural and enophile pleasure of the vine, wine and its soil’ (Deloitte, 2005, p. 4). Wine tourism has emerged as a strong and growing area of special interest tourism throughout the world, and is now an increasingly significant component of the regional and rural tourism product of most wine-producing countries (O’Neill, Palmer, & Charters, 2002). In fact, enotourism has grown significantly in popularity during the last few decades, leading to an impressive global

[1]

1. CONTACT Elena S. Rotarou (1) erotarou@fen.uchile.cl (2) Department of Economics, University of Chile, University of Chile, Diagonal Paraguay 257, Office 1506, Santiago, 8330015, Chile
   © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group ↩︎

increase in wine festivals and wine events, which are now being introduced and promoted as part of regional or national tourism strategies (Hall & Sharples, 2008).

In September 2016, the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), its Members and Affiliate States, tourism administrations, international and regional organisations, the private sector, academia and civil society, gathered at the 1st UNWTO Global Conference on Wine Tourism, where the growing importance of enotourism to the local, regional, and national economy was recognised. In particular, in its Georgia Declaration on Wine Tourism, the conference underlined that, among other things, wine tourism: a) can contribute to fostering sustainable tourism by promoting both the tangible and intangible heritage of the destination; b) is capable of generating substantial economic and social benefits for key players of each destination, in addition to playing an important role in terms of cultural and natural resource preservation; c) facilitates the linking of destinations around the common goal of providing unique and innovative tourism products, whereby maximising synergies in tourism development, surpassing traditional tourism subsectors; d) provides an opportunity for underdeveloped tourism destinations, in most cases rural areas, to mature alongside established destinations, and enhance the economic and social impact of tourism on a local community; and e) provides an innovative way to experience a destination’s culture and lifestyle, responding to consumers’ evolving needs and expectations (UNWTO, 2016a).

Given these attributes, enotourism is an economic activity that could contribute to improve the recent performance of the Chilean economy that grew at an annual rate of approximately only 1.9%1.9 \% during the 2014-2016 period; this is rather disappointing for an economy used to grow at an annual rate of 5.2%5.2 \% on average for the last three decades (World Bank, 2017). It should be underlined that Chile - a country that depends too heavily on its primary, extractive and environmentally-polluting economic sectors - needs to reorient its economic basis to reach a more sustainable type of development (López & Figueroa, 2016). Tourism in general, and enotourism in particular, being both non-extractive and service-oriented economic sectors, could be a significant part of the answer to the diversification of the Chilean economy, on account of the large Mediterranean climate region of the country that is an important region for wine production (Hannah et al., 2013). 1{ }^{1}

Chile - together with the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and other Latin American countries - forms part of the New World wine regions, as opposed to the Old World wine regions, which include France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and other northern, eastern and south-eastern European countries (VinePair, 2016). Among the first, the United States currently has more than 8000 wineries (WineAmerica, 2014), with a total retail value of its wine market in 2015 of USD 55.8 billion (Wine Institute, 2016). The State of California accounts for two-thirds of all wine sold in the country, generating USD 31.5 billion in retail sales. Tourism directly related to California’s wine industry account for 23.6 million visitors (Wine Institute, 2016).

Chile, in turn, with a production of nearly 10.5 million hectolitres in 2016, is the eighth wine-producing country in the world, and the first among New World countries (Aurand, 2017). Due to its unique geography, landscapes, and the abundance of a variety of goodquality wines, Chile has begun recently to develop its enotourism industry by offering tourists a range of attractive wine routes and wine festivals.

Nevertheless, unlike other well-established wine tourism destinations, enotourism in Chile is relatively in its infancy (Kunc, 2010). This fact can be confirmed both by the relative low number of tourists visiting vineyards but also by the scarce existing research on enotourism in Chile. Such research in the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia is abundant, mostly due to the high development of wine tourism in those countries (Alebaki & Iakovidou, 2011; Mitchell & Hall, 2006). By contrast, research on the Chilean wine tourism has been limited. Data is available on wine production (mostly from websites such as Wines of Chile); there is also research on the various aspects of the wine industry (see for example, Hojman, 2015; Oyaneder & Maturana, 2016). However, there is much less information on enotourism, with most data taken from reports of consultancies (for instance, +M Consultores, 2014); few reports exist on wine routes and wine tourism development in Chile (Kunc, 2010; Rojas & Correa, 2015; Sharples, 2002). Overall, information is scarce and general, with various sources providing different information, a fact that hinders the promotion of the industry and the creation of new products (Subsecretary of Tourism, 2014).

In view of the young development stage of the wine tourism industry in Chile, it is important to address the challenges that the industry is facing or is likely to face in the future, so as to avoid the pitfalls of unsustainable development of such a promising sector. The paper describes the current situation of the wine tourism industry in Chile, presents the main challenges to attaining a sustainable development in the future, and suggests some possible solutions to address these issues. We underline the contribution that enotourism, as a subsector of the service sector of the economy, can make to foster the growth of the currently embattled Chilean economy. The paper adds to existing literature by focusing on the challenges that the wine tourism sector faces in Chile, an issue that has been very little explored and is of ultimate importance for the sector’s development and its contribution to the country’s long run sustainable development. The recommendations proposed in this study can apply to other countries that are in the process of developing their wine tourism industry and are facing similar challenges to Chile.

2. Literature review: enotourism

Enotourism or wine tourism has been defined as ’ … visitation to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals and wine shows for which grape wine tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape wine region are the prime motivating factors for visitors’ (Hall, Sharples, Cambourne, & Macionis, 2000, p. 3). Wine tourism is based on a combination between the wine tourist and the wine tourism product, the latter being defined as the union between tourism and the wine industries within the wider context of the wine region; as a result, the product itself is not only related to the winery, its staff, and setting but also linked to the wider regional tourism product (Mitchell & Hall, 2006). Moreover, wine is an integral component of the culture of many countries (Bisson, Waterhouse, Ebeler, Walker, & Lapsley, 2002) and wine tourism is generally also related to its hosting country’s identity that is often proudly linked to a wine industry with a long cultural and historical tradition with roots profoundly inserted in its agricultural and rural industries (UNWTO, 2016b).

In contrast to other agricultural commodities, wine is marketed by the geographical location of production, its terroir. For example, Bruwer and Alant (2009) found that for wine tourists in Australia the most important characteristic of the entire winescape is

the region’s scenic beauty, and that other high impact characteristics are the friendly people and their hospitality, overall ambience, and the diversity of wine estates. On the other hand, globalisation and worldwide access to information has resulted in a more knowledgeable and empowered wine consumer with a more sophisticated understanding of product value and a discriminating demand for wine quality. The control of the definition of quality has thus shifted to the consumer. Therefore, success as a wine producer in the twenty-first century requires a thorough appreciation of human behaviour and product choice (Bisson et al., 2002), which is undoubtedly also true to be successful as a producer of wine tourism services.

Enotourism can provide many benefits for the local, regional, and national economy. It creates local jobs, introduces new business opportunities, and attracts investment and other types of tourism that can be combined with enotourism, such as gastronomy or adventure tourism (Kunc, 2010; Mitchell & Hall, 2006). On the other hand, enotourism has been linked to various conflicts, such as the belief that wine tourism benefits tourism operators more than wineries, the existence of ‘mobile drunks’ who want to drink freely instead of purchasing wine or learning about wine, as well as land-use conflicts associated with the rapid and unsustainable growth of wine tourism in various regions, and its serious implications for agriculture, the natural environment, and local communities (Carlsen & Ali-Knight, 2004; Poitras & Donald, 2006). Table 1 presents advantages and disadvantages of wine tourism from the viewpoint of the main parties involved, that is, the vineyard, the tourist, and the tourist destination.

Various strategies have been suggested for successful wine tourism development. Dowling and Carlsen (1999) proposed a macroeconomic framework for strategic wine tourism research at the national and regional levels, and communicating issues to

Table 1. Main advantages and disadvantages of wine tourism for vineyard, tourist, and tourist destination.

[1]

1. Source: Own elaboration with information from Meller (2015) and Hall (2016). ↩︎

government and industry groups. Getz (2000) suggested that the research on enotourism and success factors should focus on wine tourists, marketing effectiveness, success factors for wineries, and destinations. Dodd and Beverland (2001) took a life-cycle view of wine tourism in order to identify strategies for successful wine tourism development. Their five-stage model was comprised of a) winery establishment; b) winery recognition; c) regional prominence; d) maturity; and e) tourism decline. While this model provides an interesting approach into success factors of wine tourism development, it is argued that some wineries may employ a different path to their development due to their size and ownership, and therefore, more research into this model is necessary (Kunc, 2010).

Another approach to this topic is the understanding that wine production and tourism are situated at ‘… opposite ends of industrial spectrum’ (Carlsen, 2004, p. 8). As Carlsen (2004) further adds,
… wine production economics is supply-led, price taking, production of a homogeneous product, so the managers’ focus is on cost-minimising activities and reliant on capital growth to create wealth. On the other hand, tourism is a service industry - essentially demand-driven, price-making and heterogeneous service - that relies on profits to create wealth (p. 8).

Although this approach provides some light on the nature of the wine-production-tourism industry, it is also partial. Ultimately, no wine production will succeed in the long run without appropriately serving a demand side for wine, and no enotourism will survive very long without producing and supplying the required tourist services in a timely and affordable way. Therefore, it is necessary that both wine tourism researchers and wine industry managers understand how these two industries - wine and tourism - converge and diverge, by taking into account a series of economic, technical, cultural, geographic, and vocational factors (Carlsen, 2004).

Due to the variety of wine tourism development strategies and local conditions, large disparities exist in the ‘success’ rate of this particular industry between wine-producing countries. Hall and Mitchell (2000) found that such differences exist between more and less developed regions, for example some Mediterranean countries. Getz, Dowling, Carlsen, and Anderson (1999) examined the development and marketing of wine tourism in Australia and the United States and grouped critical success factors (CSFs) into quality (of wine, service, and experiences), wine country appeal, winery appeal, and developmental and marketing factors, with quality emerging as the most important success factor. Williams (2001) underlined the importance of a quality wine, accompanied by a set of natural landscape, culinary, educational, event hosting and cultural dimensions. Mora (2006) found that the CSFs for wine tourism development are product consolidation, increase in sales forces efforts, reduction in the number of intermediaries between production and consumption, and maintenance of a niche position on the global market.

Other studies have highlighted the importance of the existence of a unique product combined with well-trained staff and dining or other events (Dodd, 1995), the values, habitudes and tendencies (lifestyle factor) of community residents and visitors (Gmelch & Gmelch, 2011), strong tourism marketing organisation that includes effective signage, advertising and quality staff training and service (Baker & Cameron, 2008), good customer service (Byrd, Canziani, Hsieh, Debbage, & Sonmez, 2016), branding and image enhancement (Getz & Brown, 2006), and land protection (Williams, 2001). Other CSFs include

investment in human resources and stakeholder involvement (Simpson & Bretherton, 2004), collaboration between wine and tourism industries, and between public and private organisations (Getz et al., 1999), building of strong horizontal and vertical business relationships (Wargenau & Che, 2006), and community involvement and support (Baker & Cameron, 2008; Matarrita-Cascante, Brennan, & Luloff, 2010). Several of these critical success factors regarding wine tourism point to the fact that tourists would not see enotourism destinations only as packages of opportunities to fulfil their perceived wants but also as places of constructed meaning with an existential authenticity where they can genuinely enjoy social interaction, have fun, reinforce social bonds or have a moment of catharsis (Ryan, 2010; Wang, 1999, 2000).

On the other hand, Cambourne, Macionis, Hall, and Sharples (2000) identify a series of problems for the development of the wine tourism industry. They recognise that Old and New World wine-producing countries have to confront different development issues: for example, one of the Old World countries’ most challenging issues is to convince local population to see wine tourism as a legitimate source of recreation. On the other hand, New World wine-producing countries face other issues, including inter-industry linkages and tourism participation costs (Cambourne et al., 2000).

Other bottlenecks that impede the development of wine tourism industry include lack of infrastructure, regulatory restrictions, lack of appropriate staff training, strong focus of wine makers on wine production, little government support (Carlsen, 2004; Correia, Passos Ascenção, & Charters, 2004; Duarte & Liu, 2011; Jaffe & Pasternak, 2004; Kunc, 2010), and even barriers such as airport security checks and anti-drink-drive laws (Duarte, Bressan, O’Shea, & Krajsic, 2013). Another concern involves land use, with the rapid growth of enotourism in wine-producing regions causing conflict as tourism expansion can threaten vine land (Carlsen & Ali-Knight, 2004).

Furthermore, with the increased focus on sustainable practices in the tourism sector, sustainability has gained an important role in the wine tourism industry as well. Lack of environmentally-friendly practices in wine production give a negative impression on today’s environmentally-conscious tourist and consumer, who pays attention to sustainable practices when purchasing wine (Forbes, Cohen, Cullen, Wratten, & Fountain, 2009). A constant performance-oriented productive approach for vineyard exploitation instead of a quality and sustainability approach can lead to an eventual decline in the quality of the produced grapes, with negative consequences for the tourism sector as well; a balance is necessary between the economic profits of the tourism sector and the carrying capacity of the wine-producing region (Montella, 2017).

3. Methodology

In order to describe the current situation of enotourism in Chile and the challenges it faces, we conducted a thorough literature review. This extended mostly to journals, reports, and newspaper articles. However, as mentioned previously, the information on enotourism in Chile is quite limited. To the best of our knowledge, the only source of general data on enotourism in Chile - and not on particular vineyards - are the reports by +M Consultores, ‘Diagnostics of enotourism in Chile’ (for the years 2005, 2006, 2010, and 2013). These reports collect studies and technical papers on national vineyards that are open to tourists, perform fieldwork and analyse tourist registry for each vineyard, and establish a wine

tourism competitive ranking, with the aim of identifying the advantages and differentiating attributes of the vineyards, and determining the competitiveness level of Chile as a country and as a wine tourism destination (+M Consultores, 2014). Their objective is to provide a diagnosis of the wine tourism industry in five areas: general data, infrastructure, human resources, offer, and demand, after which a set of recommendations is suggested.

Our paper follows the same concept: it identifies and presents certain key areas for enotourism development, and then proceeds to a series of suggestions that could improve those particular aspects of the enotourism sector in Chile. In order to frame the challenges that the enotourism industry is currently facing as well as presenting recommendations, we combined the existing literature review on opportunities and bottlenecks for enotourism development with available data on the Chilean enotourism sector. As a result, the key areas that our paper presents are the following: a) infrastructure; b) domestic and foreign tourists; c) governance; d) sustainability; e) human capital; and f) promotion strategies. The information provided comes partially from these reports, but also from other relevant studies (for example, Kunc, 2010), as well as newspaper articles (for instance, from El Pulso). The suggestions are either our own or taken from these sources.

4. Enotourism in Chile

The history of enotourism in Chile is linked to the creation in 1996 of the first wine route, the Colchagua Wine Route, in the famous wine-producing Colchagua Valley, located 93 miles south of the country’s capital city of Santiago. Since then, interesting tourist products associated with wine have been offered in practically all wine-producing regions, with the result that, thirteen years later, Herrera (2009) reported that some degree of enotourism existed in Chile, mainly though the development of several wine routes. Enotourism has been identified as one of the sustainable tourist experiences where Chile has a comparative advantage, together with other types of tourism, such as indigenous tourism, astronomical tourism, and adventure tourism (Infyde ID, 2015).

The classification of Chile’s wine producing areas is determined by the Ministry of Agriculture’s Decrees N ∘464{ }^{\circ} 464 of 1994, and N ∘22{ }^{\circ} 22 of 2005, and establishes the following official six wine-producing regions with their corresponding sub-regions: a) Atacama Region (Copiapó Valley, Huasco Valley); b) Coquimbo Region (Elqui Valley, Limarí Valley, Choapa Valley); c) Aconcagua Region (Aconcagua Valley, Casablanca Valley, San Antonio Valley); d) Central Valley Region (Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó Valley, Maule Valley), e) South Region (Itata Valley, Bío-Bío Valley, Malleco Valley); and f) Austral Region (Cautin Valley, Osorno Valley). Figure 1 provides a map of the seventeen wine-producing sub-regions of Chile.

According to the Wines of Chile (privately-run association, representing the viticultural producers of Chile), there are currently sixteen wine routes offered in Chile. These voluntary partnerships with other agents in the industry, for the pursuit of common goals, are the following:
(a) Northern zone: Huasco Valley, Elqui Valley, Limarí Valley, and Choapa Valley;
(b) Central zone: Aconcagua Valley, Casablanca Valley, Maipo Valley, San Antonio Valley, Cachapoal Valley, Colchagua Valley (these last two valleys are in Rapel Valley); and
© Southern zone: Curicó Valley, Maule Valley, Itata Valley, Bío-Bío Valley, Malleco Valey, and Osorno Valley.

Figure 1. Map of wine-producing valleys in Chile. Source: Own elaboration using Google Maps.
Table 2 shows the number of vineyards that are open to tourists (from now on, ‘open vineyards’). A third (31) of the vineyards that offer touristic activities are in the Metropolitan Region (Maipo Valley), 21 in the O’Higgins Region (Colchagua Valley and Cachapoal Valley), and 20 in the Valparaíso Region (Casablanca Valley) (Errázuriz, 2016).

Table 2. Number of vineyards open to touristic activities, 2005-2016.

Note: The 2010 decrease in the number of open vineyards was due to the effects of February 2010 earthquake. Source: +M Consultores (2014) and Rojas (2016).

Table 3. Number of tourists visiting vineyards, 2005-2015.

Source: +M Consultores (2014) and Transforma Turismo (2016).

For 2013, out of the open vineyards, 62%62 \% belonged to a wine route. In the wine tours offered, the most frequent activities include wine purchase (99%), tasting (97%), visit to the cellar (94%), and touring the vineyard ( 90%90 \% ). Other activities that are offered in various vineyards include horse riding, cycling 2{ }^{2} or sightseeing in a horse-driven carriage, trekking, harvesting, wine making, and bottle labelling. Tours last on average 100 minutes, are offered in English (in 85% of open vineyards) and in Portuguese as well (in 30% of open vineyards). The average price for a basic tour is 12,350 Chilean pesos (about USD18), while for a complete tour is 33,20033,200\33,200 33,200 pesos (about USD50) (+M Consultores, 2014).

Table 3 shows the number of tourists visiting Chilean vineyards. Most visitors go to the vineyards in Maipo Valley, since these vineyards are close to Santiago, they offer competitive tourist packages from Monday to Sunday, and are mostly traditional vineyards with a strong presence abroad.

In 2015, 41.3% of tourists were Brazilians, 9.2% Americans, and the rest Germans (1.3%), Chinese (1.2%), and Canadians (1.1%) (Transforma Turismo, 2016). Historically, most visitors to the Chilean vineyards have been Brazilians, followed by tourists from the United States. Chilean tourists form about 20% of all tourists visiting the vineyards, and thus making Chile the only wine-producing country that receives many more foreign visitors to its vineyards than domestic.

Wine tourism in Chile has also a seasonal character: with the finishing of the harvest in March and April, there is a drop in wine tourists; the number picks up again during skiing and summer time (southern hemisphere). Concerning the profile of wine tourists, 51%51 \% are women, 55%55 \% are between 36 and 45 years of age, 35%35 \% travel in couples, 45%45 \% visit the vineyards due to a general interest in wine, and 81%81 \% have a general knowledge of wine (Transforma Turismo, 2016).

5. Enotourism in Chile: challenges and suggestions

In the last ten years, enotourism in Chile has grown at approximately 21.3% a year (Errázuriz, 2016). For 2015, enotourism generated USD 24 millions, which included entrance, wine consumption, and wine purchases in the vineyards’ shops (Errázuriz, 2016). Chile’s strengths for developing enotourism are many: the country has an important cultural landscape of wine, a concept that encompasses natural, cultural and human factors and links them with viticulture. It has diversity in potential terroirs and types of wines, while there are many traditional wineries with history next to modern wineries with greater technological

and architectural development. There are more than fifty sustainable vineyards certified by ‘Certified Sustainable Wines of Chile’, an important achievement and attraction for environmental-friendly visitors. Additionally, because of the country’s geography, its reasonable air and ground transportation, and its generally well-organised tourist industry, wine tourism in Chile can be easily complemented by other activities, such as gastronomic tourism, nature tourism, health tourism, sport tourism (ski, golf, trekking, surfing, etc.), agrotourism, and astronomical tourism.

Despite the clear advantage that Chile has with regards to the development of a successful wine tourism industry, the country has not taken full advantage of this potential so far (Kunc, 2010; + M Consultores, 2014). Table 4 shows a comparison with other wine-producing countries - both from the Old and New World - that shows how Chile performs concerning various enotourism indicators.

The table shows that there is definitely an untapped potential for the development of enotourism in Chile. While Chile is a great wine producer, the number of open vineyards is still quite limited, generating a low income. Another fact that stands out is the low percentage of Chilean wine tourists: only 20%20 \% of all wine tourists are local, in comparison to the United States, for instance, where 87% are local tourists. Furthermore, whereas enotourism as percentage of total tourism in Chile may be higher than enotourism in most countries in the table, this does not mean that this is due to the successful strategies implemented by the government or the vineyards themselves: as presented later in this paper, Chile does not have a strong image abroad as a tourist destination, and therefore it does not attract as many tourists as it could, given better promotion strategies (Marinovic, 2016). As a result, the estimated 5−6%5-6 \% of total tourism that enotourism encompasses is definitely not a success story; in fact, other countries in the table with a lower such percentage are doing much better income-wise.

While the fact that Chile has a young history regarding enotourism should be acknowledged when comparing it to other much more developed markets (especially with the Old World wine-producing countries), it is essential to address certain challenges that the

Table 4. Comparison of selected wine-producing countries, 2015 data or latest available.

Source: Data for wine production comes from OIV (2016) and for total number of tourists from OECD (2016). Remaining data comes from the following sources: a) Italy: Cinelli (2015); b) France: Girard (2015); c) Spain: ACEVIN (2016); d) United States: Carl (2016); Rosenbloom (2015); WineAmerica (2014); e) Australia: Halstead, Duboudin, and Rastegar (2013); Sutherland and Saini (2014); Tourism Australia (2016); Tourism Research Australia (2015); Wine Australia (2016); f) Argentina: Errázuriz (2016); and g) Chile: Errázuriz (2016); own calculations for enotourism as percentage of total tourism, based on data from INE (2015).
Note: Errázuriz (2016) mentions that enotourism in Chile as a percentage of total tourism is only 0.5%0.5 \%. However, taking into account the number of international tourists for 2015 (that is, 4.4 millions), domestic tourists staying at various types of accommodation (that is, about 6 millions), and adding an approximate number for Chilean tourists staying with family and friends, we calculate that enotourism in Chile is between 5 and 6%6 \% of total tourism.

industry is currently facing and that if not dealt with may eventually impede the development of this very promising sector in Chile. The next section provides information on these issues and offers suggestions to address these particular bottlenecks.

a) Tourist accessibility / infrastructure

Issues: Various reports have stressed the inadequacy and low quality of existing services, the inadequate signage (both external and internal), connectivity transport problems, insufficiency of tourist routes connected to tourist attractions, and lack of maintenance of existing infrastructure (Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016; Rojas & Correa, 2015). While efforts have been made to address these issues (especially regarding connectivity and signage), there are still many gaps, especially in the provision of public restrooms and access for people with disability. Also, only 49%49 \% of open vineyards offer food services and only 23%23 \% offer accommodation, thus limiting the tourist package that they could offer; the lack of restaurants and hotels pose a serious constraint to the sector’s further development (Rojas & Correa, 2015; Subsecretary of Tourism, 2014). Furthermore, there is a significant absence of playground for children (Rojas & Correa, 2015); this is a particular disadvantage since it often excludes families with small children from attending wine tours (many vineyards stipulate that only children over 12 years of age are allowed on tours).

Suggestions: Infrastructure gaps need to be addressed in all areas, including road and facilities maintenance, as well as better signage and public transport connectivity. Vineyards should invest in restaurants and accommodation, especially those vineyards that are away from Santiago or other main cities, and those close to areas offering other forms of special interest tourism (gastronomic, nature, health, sport, ethnic, historic, astronomical, etc.). Tourist wine routes should be incorporated into the wider region’s tourist product, and should be linked to historical, cultural and architectural sites, in order to offer a more complete and attractive tourist package. A public effort to promote coordination among groups of tourism operators offering different types of special interest tourism could be instrumental to develop new and comprehensive tourist packages including wine routes for both foreign as well as national tourists. 3{ }^{3} The introduction of playgrounds for children should also be taken under consideration in order to be able to attract families as well.

Implementing many of these suggestions aimed at improving accessibility and infrastructure for the enotourism sector do not imply large additional costs because they could be implemented by adapting some aspects of the National Project of Public Works for Development - Chile 2020, currently under implementation. This national effort has a long-term strategic goal of expanding and improving the country’s infrastructure basis (routes, ports, airports, connectivity, etc.), in order to make Chile’s economy more competitive and globalised, and to foster key sectors and productive clusters, among which the tourist sector is explicitly incorporated (GOCH-MOP, 2010; GOCH-MTT, 2013). On the other hand, restaurant and lodging infrastructure can be financed by vineyard owners and other entrepreneurs, given its expected private profitability;the public sector could also provide support to small businesses through especially oriented credit lines.

b) Domestic vs. foreign tourists

Issues: Chile is the only wine-producing country with a much higher number of foreign visitors to its vineyards than Chileans; only one out of five tourists to a vineyard is Chilean (Errázuriz, 2016). This has to do with various reasons, including the facts that 38%38 \% of vineyards are closed one day during the weekend, thus limiting the number of local tourists visiting (+ M Consultores, 2014), and that most Chileans lack wine culture and knowledge about wines. According to a recent survey of Fundación Imagen de Chile, 56% of Chileans have little knowledge of wine, while 38% of Chileans declared not drinking wine or drinking once a year (Errázuriz, 2016). Furthermore, there is a lack of advertising and promotion of wine routes to the average Chilean consumer. Most information on visits to vineyards is either through travel agencies abroad, travel agencies in Chile (such as Tour Bus, which offers many tours especially near Santiago), or in winerelated magazines (such as El Mundo del Vino). Furthermore, wine tasting in Chile is viewed mainly as a ‘rich people or foreign tourist activity’; taking into account the high tour prices, in a country with a very high income inequality (according to recent estimation by López, Figueroa, & Gutiérrez, 2016, the GINI index for the period 2004-2013 was 0.61 on average), the average Chilean is not attracted by the existing wine tourism offers.

Suggestions: Prices of wine tours should be adjusted to local reality, at least with regards to the basic tourist packages. Considering that in Spain, the average standard visit to a vineyard (guided tour and wine tasting) costs only USD7.30 (ACEVIN, 2016), the USD18 for an equivalent standard visit to a Chilean vineyard is quite expensive in relative terms. The price should be lowered in order to attract more Chileans who have been reluctant to engage in enotourism activities, mostly on account of financial reasons. There is an opportunity for vineyards to offer visits exclusively for Chilean visitors on one of the weekend days, which could be especially convenient for those vineyards that currently open only one of the weekend days thus extending their operations to the additional weekend day. An alternative possibility is for the vineyards to offer a special discount for Chilean tourists one or two days of the week and/or at certain hours of the weekend. Furthermore, there should be a wider advertising of such activities in various media, including daily newspapers, not only specialised magazines, together with a wider domestic promotion of Chilean wines.

c) Governance

Issues: The enotourism sector in Chile can be characterised by low cooperation between leaders of industry and lack of coordination between public actors at ministerial and municipal level (Enoturismo Chile, 2017; Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016). Organisation at a publicpublic level and at a public-private level is also limited, while existing programmes for supporting tourist-related businesses are very little adapted to the reality of the sector (Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016; Rojas, 2016). Sector-wide cooperation to achieve a coordinated planning of the public and private investment is also limited, especially at an intraregional level (Rojas, 2016). The sector is also characterised by relative low associativity: currently only 62%62 \% of open vineyards belong to a wine route (+M Consultores, 2014). These governance issues lead to low quality of services, inadequate sustainability, and informality. 4{ }^{4}

Suggestions: Cooperation and public-private partnerships in the enotourism industry should be strengthened. More vineyards need to be included in wine routes in order to

improve destination promotion, optimise management, and reduce operation costs. There is also the need for the formation of a Wine Tourism Observatory, understood as a public and/or private entity that would design and promote policies aimed at promoting the sector (Rojas & Correa, 2015). This entity could also be in charge of collecting statistical data on tourists visiting vineyards and other information related to enotourism in Chile; this data is necessary in order to be able to introduce policies aimed at improving practices and analysing strengths and weaknesses of the sector.

d) Sustainability

Issues: Enotourism is one of the several sustainable tourist products with which Chile can compete at an international level; other such products include archaeological tourism (Eastern Island and Tarapacá desert), astronomical tourism (northern regions of Antofagasta, Atacama and Coquimbo), cultural and ethno tourism, sport tourism (ski and mountaineering in the Andean cordillera, fishing in the Lake District and Patagonia), and nature and ecotourism (Tarapacá desert, Andean Altiplano (highlands), Lake District, Patagonia, and Antarctica). However, since enotourism stands as one of the most promising among these tourist products, it forms part of the National Strategic Programme for Intelligent Specialisation in Sustainable Tourism, which aims at introducing and promoting a tourism diversification strategy, through the development of sustainable, innovative, and goodquality tourist offers (Infyde ID, 2015). Nevertheless, due to eight continuous years of drought, the sustainability and future of wine production and wine tourism sector are in jeopardy. Water shortages have already had a negative impact on the production of certain wines in Limari Valley; this - coupled with the high water needs of the mining industry in the north and the decrease in humidity in the south that leads to more forest fires - can worsen the sustainability prospects of the industry (El Mostrador, 2015).

Martinez-Harms et al. (2017) show that climate change, urbanisation, and fire are key drivers of change in Central Chile and, using scenarios depicting plausible future trajectories of change, conclude that expected changes represent a serious threat to future wine production in this part of the country. The dangers to the sustainability of the industry became evident by the massively destructive forest fires that burned more than 600,000 hectares in January 2017. These fires affected various vineyards in Central Chile; only in the Colchagua Valley, 38 hectares of plantations were severely affected by the fires and lost irreversibly all their fruit, while 2158 hectares of biological corridors protecting the vines were lost (El Pulso, 2017); at least another 70 hectares of wine grapes were burned in the regions of Maule and Bio-Bio (AVC, 2017).

In Chile, vineyards installations have been adapted and modernised to offer touristic services, while most vineyards satisfy sustainability criteria since they use organic production processes (Infyde ID, 2015). 5{ }^{5} While sustainable practices have been implemented in the wine production process, it is necessary to introduce them in the wine tourism sector as well. Currently, the local population is not involved in the development of enotourism while local tourism operators do not have much knowledge of sustainable practices (Subsecretary of Tourism, 2014).

Suggestions: Local communities should be involved in the introduction and management of sustainable tourism practices, in order to promote economic, social, and environmental

sustainability. In order to promote local sustainability and linkages with the local economy, it is important that business benefits are offered to vineyards, such as tax benefits for hiring local, young people or suitable seniors, tax incentives for projects of corporate social responsibility, and investment projects (Rojas, 2016). Various sustainability programmes and projects, for example the ones promoted by Wines of Chile (such as integration and strengthening of social responsibility of the wine-producing sector, adoption of energy-efficient technologies and reduction of greenhouse gases, sustainable water usage and management, and biodiversity protection), should be adopted by vineyards together with sustainable wine tourism practices. Such practices could include energy-saving facilities, purchase of local food and other products, recycling, training and hiring of local people, and promotion and protection of cultural heritage. Given the future threats of the key drivers of change described by Martinez-Harms et al. (2017) for Central Chile, public and private collaboration will be crucial in order to monitor the evolution of these drivers (climate change, urbanisation, and fire), to anticipate their effects on wine production as well as on enotourism, and to design and implement protective, mitigation and adaptive measures in a timely and effective manner.

e) Human capital

Issues: There are currently about one thousand people who are directly employed in the enotourism sector in Chile, 60% of whom are women (Rojas, 2016). In 2013, 92% of open vineyards had a person in charge of tourism (Subsecretary of Tourism, 2014). However, the sector is characterised by an insufficient critical mass of collaborators / local partners for the entire value chain. This is coupled with lack of qualified and certified personnel with general good knowledge of enology, foreign languages, and tourist culture. Services are often of low quality and informal, while local population is not particularly hospitable or acknowledging tourists’ needs and wishes. There is also a large gap between people’s training and employers’ actual needs; this extends also to ICT knowledge and usage (Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016).

Suggestions: In order to attract more qualified personnel, it is important that salaries are increased since they are currently about 40%40 \% less than the average GDP per capita (+M Consultores, 2014), which is around USD22,000 PPP (World Bank, 2016). Furthermore, courses (including e-learning) for enotourism should be developed in order to increase knowledge of personnel employed in Chilean vineyards. Also, proficiency in foreign languages is imperative; currently, only 70%70 \% of personnel speaks English and 20% Portuguese (Rojas & Correa, 2015). Initially, the focus of the languages should be English and Portuguese (especially since almost half of foreign tourists come from Brazil). Language skills could then include French (the French could be quite an attractive target group both because of French people’s interest in wine but also because many of them reach Santiago to go further to Easter Island, and then Tahiti), and Chinese (taking into account the massive increase in the number of Chinese tourists worldwide and their increasing purchasing power). 6{ }^{6}

f) Commercialisation and promotion strategy

Issues: Despite the fact that Chile is one of the largest wine-producing countries in the world, there is a large discrepancy between the country’s potential as a wine tourism

destination and the image it has abroad (Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016); various studies and tourist surveys have shown that Chile lacks a strong image abroad and is not considered an emblematic destination (see for example, Marinovic, 2016). There is also a huge difference in the promotion and destination positioning among valleys, as well as weak integration of regional and local actors in promotion activities. For 2013, the main promotion media of open vineyards were the vineyards websites ( 87%87 \% of vineyards), web agencies ( 48.7%48.7 \% ), and national festivals ( 43.6%43.6 \% ) (Rojas & Correa, 2015). While enotourism requires high technological level, large discrepancies in usage of digital strategies can be observed (Infyde ID and Segittur, 2016).

Due to unsuccessful and inadequate marketing strategies, winery and wine region only account for 4%4 \% of the attributes deciding the purchase of a wine in Chile compared with price (31%) and brand (25%) (Zamora & Barril, 2007); there are no incentives for the consumers to travel to the wine regions and enjoy ‘consumer experience tourism’ (Mitchell & Hall, 2004).

Suggestions: There is an increasing need for much stronger marketing strategies that are focussed on the promotion of the country as a wine tourism destination for both local and foreign tourists. Recognising the gap between the country’s potential and reality, public and private actors have recently adopted various strategies. For example, in 2015 Vinos de Chile and Imagen de Chile (public organisation aimed at promoting the image of Chile abroad) formed a strategic alliance in order to strengthen the country’s image as an enotourism destination (Imagen de Chile, 2015b). This image should be promoted both for internal and external tourism through various wine festivals, tourism promotion agencies, and official digital marketing channels. Furthermore, one of the latest efforts in promoting national enotourism was the production of four videos - ‘Have a taste of Chile’ - which aim at promoting the enotourism offer coupled with gastronomy, astronomy, culture and traditions. These videos are promoted both in Chile and abroad, and through Imagen de Chile’s digital channels (Imagen de Chile, 2016). Additionally, an application, called Compass Wine, was introduced in 2015 particularly for the promotion of enotourism in Chile; this application provides timely information, off-line maps, a register of 90%90 \% of vineyards nationwide, as well as information regarding accommodation, restaurants, and other tourist attractions (Wines of Chile, 2016).

While all these efforts are laudable, synergies with other tourism sectors, including gastronomic industry, cultural tourism, adventure tourism, and astronomical tourism should also be considered (Rojas, 2016). Combining diverse attractions from different special interest tourism sectors would allow the wine tourism sector to offer tourism packages with a larger capacity to attract foreign as well as domestic visitors. Finally, the carmenere - Chile’s signature grape variety - should be strongly promoted, as this variety represents a differentiating element of the industry if compared with the rest of the world. Undoubtedly, public support to market Chile’s enotourism is crucial because, as it is well known in economic science, the public good elements in marketing strategies for the whole country’s wine tourism industry imply that private marketing efforts should not be expected to be significant. Moreover, public-private initiatives that would carry out market campaigns in foreign countries pointing out the availability of attractive tourist packages including enotourism specially tailored for tourists of the different types of special interest

tourism (archaeological, astronomical, gastronomic, sport, birdwatching, ethnic, ecological, etc.) could be particularly rewarding.

International and domestic marketing and promotion of Chile’s enotourism sector could be improved at low additional costs if the National Tourism Service (Sernatur) increases the relevance given to the enotourism sector in its current programmes. An example of this type of programmes is Sernatur’s ongoing Chile’s International Tourism Marketing Plan 2016-2018 (GOCH-ME, 2015), which could significantly increase the promotion of the tourism related to the domestic wine production among foreign visitors as well as among domestic tourists. It is necessary that this kind of public and/or private initiatives are continued, in order to help Chile close the gap that separates it from other well-established wine destination countries.

6. Conclusions and final comments

Chile is among the top wine producers in the world. With a variety of good-quality wines and unique geography, the country has recently begun to develop its enotourism industry, which is a very promising sector with a lot of potential for further development. The number of open vineyards to tourism has been increasing every year, together with the number of wine tourists that enjoy the wine-related experience that Chilean vineyards have to offer.

Thus, fostering enotourism development offers a promising opportunity to contribute to reinvigorate the rather disappointing economic performance growth of less than 2%2 \% of the Chilean economy in the last three years. As a subsector of the service sector of the economy, enotourism could also help to the urgently-needed efforts to reorient the basis of an economy heavily dependent on extractive and environmentally-polluting industries to attain a more sustainable type of development (López & Figueroa, 2016).

Nevertheless, as discussed in this paper, a series of challenges can impede the development of this sector. Such challenges include inadequate infrastructure, low accessibility, small share of domestic market, low coordination and governance issues between relevant public and private organisations, sustainability problems, low human capital, and few or ineffective promotion strategies. These bottlenecks result in an important loss of opportunities to generate wealth from enotourism, since many local and foreign tourists are attracted by other destinations with better place-marketing and services.

Taking into account the critical success factors for wine tourism development mentioned earlier on - such as quality (of wine, service, and experience), wine country appeal, natural landscape, winery appeal, community involvement and support, and effective marketing strategies - we can claim that Chile excels in its quality of wines and existence of unique landscapes, but the rest of the factors need improvement. Recently, efforts have been made to deal with these issues and therefore, there has been an increase in professionalism of staff, improvement in infrastructure, greater competitiveness in services, and improvement in governance and marketing strategies (Rojas & Correa, 2015). However, there is plenty of room for further improvements and competitive advantages that have not been yet fully exploited.

In order to develop the country’s potential for wine tourism and attract more local and foreign tourists, the government has promoted the Transforma Chile project, led by the

public Production Development Corporation (CORFO) and implemented by public and private organisations. Within the framework of this project, the Chilean wine tourism strategic programme was presented, aimed at developing enotourism in all vineyards in the country by 2025; due to the impressive potential of this sector, it is hoped that there will be 400 vineyards open to tourism by that date (Economía y Negocios, 2016). By addressing the bottlenecks to the successful and sustainable development of its wine tourism sector, Chile could quite well become a world-class enotourism destination.

Notes

1. There is no official information on the contribution of the enotourism sector to the Chilean economy. However, taking into account that in 2016 tourism contributed 10.1%10.1 \% to the local GDP (Musquiz, 2017), and that enotourism is estimated at 5.5%5.5 \% of total tourism in Chile (see Table 4), we calculate that enotourism contributes about 0.5%0.5 \% to the Chilean GDP.
2. The Colchagua Valley has been selected as one of the ten most bicycle-friendly wine routes in the world (The Guardian, 2015).
3. This was also an insight arising very clearly from a recent study (Figueroa et al., 2016) that produced a map of the economic value of the ecosystem services of the Second Region of Chile. This study analysed the emergence of an eventual new wine tourist destination in the northern Tarapacá desert of Chile, where a unique wine, produced from the unique Chilean ‘Tamarugal’ wine grape variety, has been developed and which could be packaged together with other touristic attractions of the region (geysers, Andean ecosystems, flora and fauna, old mining settlements, ethnic, anthropologic and gastronomic attractions, etc.) to create a very interesting and promising touristic offer. A little public investment to foster cooperation between some key tourism operators of the Tarapacá region could turn this into a reality.
4. The lack of public-private cooperation as well as of associativity among private tourism operators are not only phenomena of the enotourism sector in Chile but they are rather ubiquitous to many of the country’s tourism subsectors. They have been described also in Chile’s ecotourism sector (Figueroa, Bravo, & Álvarez, 2003), the special interest tourism sector of the Araucanía Region (Collipal, 2013; Reyes, 2013), the ethno and cultural tourism sectors of the high-Andean wetland system of the Arica-Parinacota Region (Joignant, 2014), and the tourism sector of the Tarapacá Region (Figueroa et al., 2016).
5. Chile has the most organic and healthy viticulture in the world, thanks to its sustainable practices (Rojas, 2016). Sustainable practices - including elimination of pesticides and synthetic fertilisers, and usage of natural products, such as minerals and fungi, to treat diseases that affect vines - have increased: between 2011 and 2015, the number of vineyards adhering to sustainable practices increased from 12 to 57 , reaching 70%70 \% of the sector (Imagen de Chile, 2015a).
6. Sales of Chilean wine to Asia - and to China in particular - have been experiencing a 30% annual increase in recent years. It is estimated that in the medium term, China will replace Great Britain and United States as Chile’s main wine export destination (Imagen de Chile, 2015a). This could lead to an impressive increase in Chinese tourists wishing to further explore and learn about wine. Napa Valley’s tourism marketing board, Visit California, has already recognised the growing importance of Chinese tourists by making China its primary target for tourism outreach (Carl, 2016).

Acknowledgements

Eugenio Figueroa B. acknowledges the financial support of the Center of Natural Resource and Environmental Economics (CENRE), of University of Chile.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

Eugenio Figueroa B. acknowledges the financial support of the Center of Natural Resource and Environmental Economics (CENRE), of University of Chile [grant number BIP-30169874-0].

References

ACEVIN. (2016). Informe de visitantes a bodegas y museos del vino asociados a las Rutas del Vino de España 2015. Retrieved from http://www.wineroutesofspain.com/bd/archivos/archivo553.pdf
Alebaki, M., & Iakovidou, O. (2011). Market segmentation in wine tourism: A comparison of approaches. Tourismos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, 6(1), 123-140.
Aurand, J. M. (2017, October 24). Point de conjoncture vitivinicole mondiale 2017. Conference de presse, OIV, Paris. Retrieved from http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/5679/conf-rence-de-presse-oiv-octobre-2017.pdf
AVC. (2017). 94 hectáreas de viñedos han sido consumidas por incendios forestales. Asociación de Vinos de Chile. Retrieved from https://www.publimetro.cl/cl/economia/2017/01/27/94-hectareas-de-vinedos-han-sido-consumidas-por-incendios-forestales.html
Baker, M. J., & Cameron, E. (2008). Critical success factors in destination marketing. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 8(2), 79-97.
Bisson, L. F., Waterhouse, A. L., Ebeler, S. E., Walker, M. A., & Lapsley, J. T. (2002). The present and future of the international wine industry. Nature, 418, 696-699.
Bruwer, J., & Alant, K. (2009). The hedonic nature of wine tourism consumption: An experiential view. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 21(3), 235-257.
Byrd, E. T., Canziani, B., Hsieh, Y. C., Debbage, K., & Sonmez, S. (2016). Wine tourism: Motivating visitors through core and supplementary services. Tourism Management, 52, 19-29.
Cambourne, B., Macionis, N., Hall, C. M., & Sharples, L. (2000). The future of wine tourism. In C. M. Hall, L. Sharples, B. Cambourne, & N. Macionis (Eds.), Wine tourism around the world: Development, management, and markets (pp. 297-321). New York: Routledge.
Carl, T. (2016). Visitors from China: As numbers grow, the search is on for ways to increase their welcome. Napa Valley Register. Retrieved from http://napavalleyregister.com/wine/visitors-from-china-as-numbers-grow-the-search-is-on/article\_aab10ce1-e7dc-596b-8be0-0fb226029d60.html
Carlsen, J. (2004). A review of global wine tourism research. Journal of Wine Research, 15(1), 5-13. doi:10.1080/0957126042000300281
Carlsen, J., & Ali-Knight, J. (2004, May). Managing wine tourism through demarketing: The case of Napa Valley, California. In J. Carlsen & S. Charters (Eds.), International wine tourism research. Proceedings of the International Wine Tourism Conference, Margaret River, Western Australia. Perth: Vineyards Publishers.
Cinelli, D. C. (2015). Wine tourism in Italy. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2015(7), 29-35.
Collipal, M. F. (2013). Análisis y caracterización de las fuentes de financiamiento del turismo de intereses especiales (TIE), para el desarrollo del pueblo mapuche, Región de la Araucanía (Masters thesis in Public Policy). University of Chile.
Correia, L., Passos Ascenção, M. J., & Charters, S. (2004). Wine routes in Portugal: A case study of the Bairrada wine route. Journal of Wine Research, 15(1), 15-25.
Deloitte. (2005). Vintur Project: European enotourism handbook. Retrieved from http://www.recevin. net/userfiles/file/VINTUR/VADEMECUM_ENOTURISMO_EUROPEO1_engl\ sept05.pdf
Dodd, T. H. (1995). Opportunities and pitfalls of tourism in a developing wine industry. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 7(1), 5-16.
Dodd, T. H., & Beverland, M. (2001). Winery tourism life-cycle development: A proposed model. Tourism Recreation Research, 26(2), 11-21.

Dowling, R., & Carlsen, J. (1999). Wine tourism: Perfect partners. In R. Dowling & J. Carlsen (Eds.), Proceedings of the first Australian wine tourism conference. Canberra: Bureau of Tourism Research.
Duarte, A. A., Bressan, A., O’Shea, M., & Krajsic, V. (2013). Perceived benefits and challenges to wine tourism involvement: An international perspective. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(1), 66−8166-81.
Duarte, A. A., & Liu, Y. (2011). Old wine region, new concept and sustainable development: Winery entrepreneurs’ perceived benefits from wine tourism on Spain’s Canary Islands. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(7), 991-1009.
Economía y Negocios. (2016). Plan abrirá al turismo 400 viñas en 9 años. Retrieved from http://www. economiaynegocios.cl/noticias/noticias.asp?id=285952
El Mostrador. (2015). Minas y viñas corren peligro mientras Chile combate sequía como la californiana. Retrieved from http://www.elmostrador.cl/mercados/2015/03/11/minas-y-vinas-corren-peligro-mientras-chile-combate-sequia-como-la-californiana/
El Pulso. (2017, January 25). Viñas de Colchagua se suman a las afectadas por incendios. Wednesday, p. 13.

Enoturismo Chile. (2017). Programa estratégico mesoregional de enoturismo sostentable. Retrieved from http://www.chiletransforma.cl/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/ENOTURISMO-CHILE-CPIE-07-07-2017.pdf
Errázuriz, S. (2016, December 1). Enoturismo genera US 2424\24 24 millones al año y representa el 0.5%0.5 \% del turismo total. El Pulso, Empresas y Mercados, Thursday, p. 16.
Figueroa, E., Bravo, C., & Álvarez, R. (2003). Biodiversidad y turismo: Oportunidades para el desarrollo económico y la conservación en Chile. en E. Figueroa & J. A. Simonetti (Eds.), Globalización y Biodiversidad: Oportunidades y desafíos para la sociedad chilena (pp. 285-323). Santiago: Editorial Universitaria.
Figueroa, E., Reyes, P., Calfucura, E., Torres, M., Bachmann, P., & Aguilar, M. (2016). Mapa de valor económico de los servicios ecosistémicos de la Región de Tarapacá. CENRE-Universidad de Chile Project elaborated for the Government of the Tarapacá Region of Chile (p. 124). Santiago.
Forbes, S. L., Cohen, D. A., Cullen, R., Wratten, S. D., & Fountain, J. (2009). Consumer attitudes regarding environmentally sustainable wine: An exploratory study of the New Zealand marketplace. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17, 1195-1199.
Getz, D. (2000). Explore wine tourism: Management, development and destinations. New York: Cognizant.
Getz, D., & Brown, G. (2006). Critical success factors for wine tourism regions: A demand analysis. Tourism Management, 27(1), 146-158.
Getz, D., Dowling, R., Carlsen, J., & Anderson, D. (1999). Critical success factors for wine tourism. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 11(3), 20-43.
Girard, L. (2015). France seeks to add more fizz to its wine industry. The Guardian: France. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/22/france-wine-tourism-world-heritage-status
Gmelch, S. B., & Gmelch, G. (2011). Tasting the good life: Wine tourism in the Napa Valley. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Project MUSE.
GOCH-ME. (2015). Plan de Markenting Turístico Internacional de Chile 2016-2018. Santiago: Gobierno de Chile-Ministerio de Economía. p. 247.
GOCH-MOP. (2010). Chile 2020- Obras Públicas para el Desarrollo. Santiago: Gobierno de ChileMinisterio de Obras Públicas. LOM Impresores. p. 237.
GOCH-MTT. (2013). Plan Nacional de Desarrollo Portuario 2013. Santiago: Gobierno de Chile-Ministerio de Transporte y telecomunicaciones. Ograma Impresores. p. 218.
The Guardian. (2015). Top 10 bike-friendly routes in the world. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/travel/2015/jul/26/top-10-bike-friendly-wine-routes
Hall, C. M. (2016, February). Food and wine tourism: Challenges, issues and opportunities. Tourism research cluster symposium. Perth: Curtin University.
Hall, C. M., & Mitchell, R. (2000). “We are what we eat”: Food, tourism, and globalization. Tourism, Culture and Communication, 2(1), 29-39.

Hall, C. M., & Sharples, L. (2008). Food and wine festivals and events around the world: Development, management, and markets. Oxford: Elsevier.
Hall, C. M., Sharples, L., Cambourne, B., & Macionis, N. (2000). Wine tourism around the world - development, management and markets. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Halstead, L., Duboudin, S., & Rastegar, N. (2013). Australian wine tourism: A unique connection with consumers. London: Wine Intelligence & Intellima.
Hannah, L., Roehrdanz, P. R., Ikegami, M., Shepard, A. V., Shaw, M. R., Tabor, G., … Hijmans, R. J. (2013). Climate change, wine, and conservation. Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Science. doi:10. 1073/pnas. 1210127110
Herrera, R. (2009). Estudio sobre turismo rural en Chile.Santiago: Instituto Interamericano para la Cooperación Agrícola (IIC)-Oficina de Chile. p. 130.
Hojman, D. E. (2015). Radical innovation in luxury carmenere wine from Chile. Journal of Wine Research, 26(1), 40-63.
Imagen de Chile. (2015a). Mercado asiático se proyecta como el principal destino del vino chileno. Retrieved from https://marcachile.cl/noticias/mercado-asiatico-se-proyecta-como-el-principaldestino-del-vino-chileno/
Imagen de Chile. (2015b). Vinos de Chile e Imagen de Chile concretan inédita alianza estratégica. Retrieved from https://marcachile.cl/noticias/vinos-de-chile-e-imagen-de-chile-concretan-inedita-alianza-estrategica/
Imagen de Chile. (2016). Imagen de Chile lanza serie de videos para potenciar el enoturismo nacional. Retrieved from https://marcachile.cl/noticias/imagen-de-chile-lanza-serie-de-videos-para-potenciar-el-enoturismo-nacional/
INE. (2015). Turismo: alojamiento turístico. Series mensuales. Retrieved from http://www.ine.cl/canales/ chile_estadistico/estadisticas_economicas/turismo/series_mensuales_2015.php
Infyde ID. (2015). Servicio de consultoría experta para identificación de oportunidades y levantamiento de brechas y la confección de la hoja de ruta. Informe final de la Etapa 1: Diagnóstico y levantamiento de brechas del programa estratégico nacional de turismo sustentable. Código: 14 PEDN-38438. Santiago: Infyde ID.
Infyde ID and Segittur. (2016). Servicio de consultoría experta para identificación de oportunidades y levantamiento de brechas y la confección de la hoja de ruta del Programa Estratégico Nacional de turismo sustentable. Etapa 2: Diseño de la hoja de ruta. Priorización de brechas e identificación de medidas. Código: 14 PEDN-38438. Santiago: Infyde ID.
Jaffe, E., & Pasternak, H. (2004). Developing wine trails as a tourist attraction in Israel. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(4), 237-249.
Joignant, N. (2014). Valoración económica de los servicios ecosistémicos culturales recreativos y etnoculturales del sistema de humedales altoandino o Laguna Roja (comuna de Camarones, Chile): Protegiendo un ecosistema sagrado a través del turismo sustentable (Masters thesis in Environmental Management and Planning). University of Chile.
Kunc, M. (2010). Wine tourism: A review of the Chilean case. International Journal of Tourism Policy, 3 (1), 51-61.

López, R. E., & Figueroa, E. (2016). On the nexus between fiscal policies and sustainable development. Sustainable Development, 24, 201-219.
López, R. E., Figueroa, E., & Gutiérrez, P. (2016). Fundamental accrued capital gains and the measurement of top incomes: An application to Chile. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 14, 379-394.
Marinovic, F. G. (2016). Imagen y posicionamiento de Chile en turismo: una mirada desde los estudios internacionales. Santiago: Imagen de Chile.
Martinez-Harms, M. J., Bryan, B. A., Figueroa, E., Pliscoff, P., Runting, R. K., & Wilson, K. A. (2017). Ecosystem services under global change in Central Chile. Ecosystem Services, forthcoming. Available from request to: m.martinezharms@uq.edu.au
Matarrita-Cascante, D., Brennan, M. A., & Luloff, A. E. (2010). Community agency and sustainable tourism development: The case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(6), 735−756735-756.

+M Consultores. (2014). Enoturismo Chile: Diagnóstico del enotourismo en Chile año 2013. Santiago: Author.
Meller, M. (2015, May 13-16). Wine tourism as a centripetal force in the development of rural tourism. Presentation at ToSEE 2015, Tourism in South East Europe 3rd International Scientific Conference on Sustainable Tourism, Economic Development and Quality of Life, Croatia, Opatija.
Mitchell, R., & Hall, C. M. (2004). The post-visit consumer behaviour of New Zealand winery visitors. In J. Carlsen & S. Charters (Eds.), International wine tourism research. Proceedings of the International Wine Tourism Conference, Margaret River, Western Australia, May, 2004. Perth: Vineyard Publications.
Mitchell, R., & Hall, C. M. (2006). Wine tourism research: The state of play. Tourism Review International, 9, 307-332.
Montella, M. M. (2017). Wine tourism and sustainability: A review. Sustainability, 9, 113. doi:10.3390/ su9010113
Mora, P. (2006). Key factors of success in today’s wine sector. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 18(2), 139-149.
Musquiz, L. (2017). Turismo habría contribuido 10.1% al PIB local en 2016. El Mercurio, Economía y Negocios. Retrieved from http://www.economiaynegocios.cl/noticias/noticias.asp?id=364767
OECD. (2016). Oecd tourism trends and policies 2016. Paris: OECD Publishing.
OIV. (2016). 2016 World wine production estimated at 259 mhl . International Organisation of Vine and Wine. Retrieved from http://www.oiv.int/en/oiv-life/2016-world-wine-production-estimated-at-259-mhl
O’Neill, M., Palmer, A., & Charters, S. (2002). Wine production as a service experience - the effects of service quality on wine sales. Journal of Services Marketing, 16(4), 342-362.
Oyaneder, L. V., & Maturana, S. V. (2016). A new balanced scorecard approximation to enhance performance management systems of Chilean wineries. Journal of Wine Research, 27(1), 1-18.
Poitras, L., & Donald, G. (2006). Sustainable wine tourism: The host community perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(5), 425-448.
Reyes, P. (2013). Potencialidades del turismo de intereses especiales como herramienta para promover el desarrollo de microempresarios en comunidades idígenas y rurales en la Araucanía Costera. Memoria de Título de Ingeniera en Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad de Chile.
Rojas, G. (2016, September 1). Programa estratégico enoturismo sustentable: I encuentro de viñas y valles enoturísticos. Presentation Tarapacá Vineyard. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/ 28205456/ENOTURISMO_CHILE_I_ENCUENTRO_DE_VI%C3%91AS_Y_VALLES_ENOTUR%C3% 8DSTICOS_DE_CHILE
Rojas, G., & Correa, D. (2015, November 7-8). Análisis de la situación del enoturismo en Chile. Seminario de la Cátedra UNESCO de Turismo Cultural, Paisajes culturales de la viña y el vino: aportes para su protección y desarrollo sostenible en la Argentina, Buenos Aires.
Rosenbloom, S. (2015). Where will Americans travel in 2015? New York Times. Retrieved from https:// www.nytimes.com/2015/01/11/travel/where-will-americans-travel-in-2015-.html?\_r=2
Ryan, N. (2010). Ways of conceptualizing the tourist experience: A review of literature. Tourism Recreation Research, 35(1), 37-46.
Sharples, L. (2002). Wine tourism in Chile … A brave new step for a brave new world. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 14(2), 43-53.
Simpson, K., & Bretherton, P. (2004). Co-operative business practices in the competitive leisure destination: Lessons from the wine tourism industry in New Zealand. Managing Leisure, 9(2), 111-123.
Subsecretary of Tourism. (2014). Plan de acción: formulación estratégica, marco de acción y gobernanza. Retrieved from http://www.subturismo.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2014/03/Plan-de-Accion-Casablanca.pdf
Sutherland, F., & Saini, C. (2014). Propuestas de gestión para impulsar el enoturismo en el Valle de Colchagua (Thesis for obtaining the grade of Commercial Engineer). Facultad de Economía y Negocios, Universidad de Chile.
Tourism Australia. (2016). There’s nothing like Australia: Food and wine experiences. Retrieved from http:// www.tourism.australia.com/documents/corporate/TASI10602\_Food\_and\_Wine\_Infographic\_-\_ June_2016.pdf

Tourism Research Australia. (2015). Australian tourism industry 2014-15. Melbourne: Australian Government, Austrade.
Transforma Turismo. (2016). Desarrollando el enoturismo en Chile. Santiago: Transforma Turismo.
United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO]. (2016a). Georgia declaration on world tourism. Kakheti Region: Author.
UNWTO. (2016b, September 14). Wine Tourism-a growing tourism segment. United Nations World Tourism Organization. PR No.: PR 16062. Retrieved from http://media.unwto.org/press-release/ 2016-09-09/wine-tourism-growing-tourism-segment
VinePair. (2016). The guide to Old World wine vs. New World wines. Retrieved from http://vinepair.com/ wine-101/guide-old-world-vs-new-world-wines/
Wang, N. (1999). Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 349-370.
Wang, N. (2000). Tourism and modernity: A sociological analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Wargenau, A., & Che, D. (2006). Wine tourism development and marketing strategies in Southwest Michigan. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 18(1), 45-60.
Williams, P. (2001). Positioning wine tourism destinations: An image analysis. International Journal of Wine Marketing, 13(3), 42-58.
Wine Australia. (2016). Media release: New opportunities to boost growth for the Australian grape and wine community. Retrieved from http://www.wineaustralia.com/en/ /media/0000Industry\ Site/Documents/News\ and\ Media/News/Media\ Releases/2016/20160503\ 147% 20MR%20New%20opportunities%20to%20boost%20growth%20for%20the%20Australian% 20grape%20and%20wine%20community.ashx
Wine Institute. (2016). 2015 California wine sales in U.S. hit 31.931.9\31.9 31.9 billion retail value. Retrieved from http://www.wineinstitute.org/resources/pressroom/07082016
WineAmerica. (2014). About the United States wine and grape industry. Retrieved from http:// wineamerica.org/policy/by-the-numbers
Wines of Chile. (2016). Compass Wine: La aplicación de enoturismo que cambiará la forma de conocer nuestras viñas. Retrieved from http://www.winesofchile.org/es/news/05-2016/compass-wine-laaplicaci\\�\\�n-de-enoturismo-que-cambiar\\�\\�-la-forma-de-conocer-nuestras
World Bank. (2016). World Bank data: GDP per capita. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?gclid=CPPdgK-SiNECFRMlkQodTDoHsw&locations=CL
World Bank. (2017). The World Bank data: GDP growth (annual %). Retrieved from https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CL&start=1986
Zamora, J., & Barril, M. E. (2007). Turismo y vino: un estudio formativo sobre la evolución de las Rutas del Vino en Chile. Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo, 16(2), 173-194.