Judenjagd: Reassessing the Role of Ordinary Poles as Perpetrators in the Holocaust (2018) (original) (raw)

2018, Perpetrators and Perpetration of Mass Violence Action, Motivations and Dynamic

Abstract

The paper explores the shifting perceptions of ordinary individuals during the Holocaust, particularly in Poland, as they transitioned from bystanders to perpetrators. It challenges traditional historiographical frameworks by emphasizing the fluidity of the perpetrator category and examining the broader social dynamics of fear, survival, and communal violence that influenced individuals' actions during the genocide. The work aims to contribute to interdisciplinary discussions on perpetration, drawing parallels with other historical instances of mass violence while arguing for a nuanced understanding of motivations behind such actions."

Key takeaways

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  1. Polish society's role in the Holocaust shifted from bystanders to active perpetrators, particularly during the Judenjagd.
  2. Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped to the Aryan side during the Holocaust, with fewer than 50,000 surviving.
  3. The German occupation restructured local authority, incentivizing villages to participate in the hunt for Jews.
  4. Ordinary Poles, including respected community members, often acted as perpetrators under oppressive pressures and fear.
  5. The study emphasizes the need to contextualize violence beyond ethnic categories, highlighting survival dynamics.

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References (60)

  1. I am grateful to Irene Eber, David Engel, Jeffrey Kopstein, Antony Polonsky, and Piotr Wróbel for their comments on drafts of this chapter. Responsibility for content rests with the author.
  2. The General Government (GG) was a part of occupied Poland not annexed to the Third Reich, but was not a collaborating puppet state. It was subdivided into five districts governed by German civil and police administrations: Warsaw, Lublin, Radom, Kra- kow, and Galicia (added in August 1941). District Krakow was subdivided into 12 counties (Kreise). The counties that fall under the purview of this chapter are Tarnów, Dębica, Rzeszów, Jarosław, Jasło, Krosno, Przemyśl, and Sanok.
  3. AIPN Rz, 358/38, trial of village guard commandant Piotr Zembroń and others, indict- ment of the accused, p. 140. On 8 May 1951, the Voivodship Court of Rzeszów sen- tenced Zembroń to five years and six months in prison.
  4. AIPN Rz, 357/10, trial of village head Franciszek Sowa, testimony of gendarme Wik- tor Waszek, pp. 4-6. Sowa was found not guilty by the District Court of Rzeszów on 14 May 1947.
  5. AIPN Rz, 357/31, trial of gamekeeper Marcin Kotwica, testimony of Józef Wojtak, pp. 39-41. According to Wojtak, a crowd of about 30 people had witnessed the incident and Kotwica therefore believed he had no choice but to hand the fugitives over. Kot- wica was found not guilty by the District Court of Rzeszów on 31 October 1947.
  6. AIPN Rz, 358/32, trial of village head Jan Kostak, Ludwik Matuła, and Tomasz Mika, court sentence by the Voivodship Court of Rzeszów on 18 April 1951, pp. 313-8. Kostak and Matuła were sentenced to six years in prison.
  7. AIPN Rz, 363/4, trial of village guard commandant Józef Racławski, statement by the defense drawing on the testimony of Józef Leszkowicz, pp. 64-6. Racławski was found not guilty by the District Court of Tarnów on 16 April 1951.
  8. ANK, SAKr, 1002, K 54/50, trial of Emil Michałek, deposition of the accused, pp. 32-3.
  9. AIPN Rz, 358/119, trial of village guards Władysław Chorąży, Stanisław Dural, and others, court sentence by the Voivodship Court of Rzeszów on 25 June 1953, pp. 369-71. All of the accused were found innocent.
  10. V-Personen or V-Männer, from Vertrauensperson in German for "trusted person."
  11. AIPN Rz, 352/153, trial of village head Franciszek Pruchnik, sentence by the Special Penal Court of Rzeszów, 9 August 1946, pp. 198-200. The village head was found innocent.
  12. AIPN Rz, 354/52, trial of deputy village head Andrzej Kawa and village guard com- mandant Franciszek Mika, court sentence by the District Court of Jasło, 10 December 1947, p. 99.
  13. AIPN Rz, 352/149, trial of Maria Steinberg (Pelc), pp. 92, 154-5. Steinberg was sen- tenced to death by the Special Penal Court of Rzeszów on 4 November 1946.
  14. AIPN Rz, OKŚZpNP, S 20/09/Zn, Vol. II, testimony of Jan Dziedzic, 1946, pp. 366-7.
  15. CAW, II.33.44, Peasant Battalions, Rzeszów District IV-Bez, "Oracz" to "Zawojny," 28 October 1943, pp. 1-11.
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  17. BAL, B 162/7460, testimony of Christoph Führer, deputy Kreishauptmann of Dębica county, pp. 65-74.
  18. AŻIH, 301/3503, testimony of Jakub Grynblum, 1947, pp. 1-2.
  19. AIPN Rz, 353/61, pp. 258-61, trial of Jan Miłoś and other night guards, testimony of Bogdan Protter, a Jewish fugitive who came into contact with one of these informers.
  20. AIPN Rz, 358/48, trial of Jan Malczyński, testimony of Władysław Witek, pp. 20-1.
  21. AIPN Rz, OKŚZpNP, S 133/12/Zn, testimony of Julia Bura, pp. 11-13; testimony of Aleksandra Dec, pp. 16-18.
  22. AIPN Rz, 359/21, trial of village head Jan Janas, deposition of the accused, pp. 16-17.
  23. AIPN Rz, 105/7, Order No. 3, Point 21 of instructions issued by the commander of dis- trict AK Rzeszów-South, Col. Józef Maciołek, alias "Żuraw," p. 120. The order itself was issued earlier by the central command in Krakow.
  24. AAN, 191/XXIV/2, People's Guard, Krakow District IV, Report No. 2, "Krakow," 1 December 1942, p. 3.
  25. AZHRL, VI/32, Subregion (Podokręg) Rzeszów -District Przeworsk, "To the Inspec- torate of the People's Security Guard (LSB)," Section IV, 1 July 1944, p. 3.
  26. Wieści, no. 6, 6 February 1944, "Ivans and Vasyls," 3-4.
  27. AIPN Rz, 046/991, trial of PP Karol Stachak, sentence by the District Court of Rzeszów on 12 March 1949, p. 4.
  28. AIPN Rz, 353/18, trial of PP Karol Stachak, testimony of Edward Brydek, pp. 116-17.
  29. Ibid., testimony of witness Chaskel Wiesenfeld, pp. 240-1. Wiesenfeld's Jewish friends instructed him to seek the help of Stachak, who was generally regarded by them as a 'good man.'
  30. AIPN Rz, 046/991, court sentence, p. 1-12. The sentence was commuted to 10 years in prison by the Appellate Court of Rzeszów on 24 October 1949.
  31. AIPN Rz, 353/81, Vol. II, trial of village head Stanisław Biduś and others, testimony of Karolina Cieśla, pp. 75-7.
  32. AIPN Rz, 353/285, trial of Mieczysław Fiołek and Władysław Ryba, court sentence, p. 149; Teifelbaum's letter, pp. 43-43v.
  33. AIPN Rz, 107/1783, Vol. IV, Part I, trial of PP Władysław Malawski and others, testimony of Aniela Iżycka, sister of Lenartowicz, pp. 378-9; testimony of Marian Leczysłowski, a mailman in Brzostek, 379-80. Both witnesses testified that Lenartow- icz sent food packages to prisoners in Auschwitz and Łódź, as well as Żyrardów Jews resettled to the Warsaw ghetto.
  34. AIPN Rz, 34/61, Vol. I, trial of PP Michał Strzępka, testimony of Wiktoria Wolińska, 25 May 1965, pp. 183-8.
  35. References Archival sources Archive of the Institute for the Study of the Popular Movement [Archiwum Zakładu Histo- rii Ruchu Ludowego (AZHRL)] VI/32, Subdistrict Rzeszów [Podokręg Rzeszów].
  36. Archive of the Jewish Historical Institute [Archiwum Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycz- nego (AŻIH)] 301/3503, testimony of Jakub Grynblum. Archive of Modern Records [Archiwum Akt Narodowych w Warszawie (AAN)] 191/ XXIV/2, People's Guard [Gwardia Ludowa], Krakow District IV. Archive of the Rzeszów Branch of the Institute of National Remembrance [Archiwum Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej w Rzeszowie (AIPN Rz)] 358/38, 357/10, 357/31358/32, 358/119, 363/4, 352/153, 354/52, 352/149, 353/61, 358/48, 359/21, 105/7, 046/991, 353/18, 046/991, 107/1783, 34/61, 353/81, 353/28.
  37. Central Military Archives in Warsaw [Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe w Warszawie (CAW)] II.33.44, Peasant Battalions [Bataliony Chłopskie].
  38. Federal Archive of Ludwigsburg [Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg (BAL)] B 162/7460.
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FAQs

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What is the significance of the Jedwabne pogrom in Holocaust studies?add

The paper demonstrates that the Jedwabne pogrom has become central in redefining Polish participation in genocide and challenges historical narratives portraying Poles solely as victims.

How did Polish societal dynamics influence the behavior of ordinary people during the Holocaust?add

The study reveals that ordinary Poles often participated in violence due to restructured communal dynamics of fear rather than intrinsic ethnic hatred during the 'Judenjagd' from 1942-45.

What role did the village guards play in the local collaboration with Nazi authorities?add

The paper identifies village guards as pivotal in enforcing German orders, collecting food quotas, and apprehending Jews, fundamentally altering social relations in rural societies.

When did the transformation process from bystander to perpetrator begin among Polish nationals?add

This transformation accelerated post-2001 with the publication of Jan T. Gross's 'Neighbors,' which highlighted Polish involvement in anti-Jewish actions during the Holocaust.

What methodological innovations does the paper utilize to study the Judenjagd?add

The paper employs a microhistorical approach framed by integrated history to contextualize behaviors of perpetrators amidst broader social pressures and inter-ethnic dynamics.