The extinction of Xenothrix mcgregori, Jamaica's last monkey (original) (raw)

Abstract

The Jamaican primate, Xenothrix mcgregori, regarded variously as either a pitheciid or a stem platyrrhine, was the terminal branch of a clade that likely entered the West Indies at least as early as the Early Miocene, although its lineage is represented by fossils of Quaternary age only. We present a new direct radiocarbon-based date of 1,477 ± 34 calibrated years before present (cal BP) for the last documented appearance of this species in the fossil record. We employed the Gaussian-resampled, inverse-weighted McInerny et al. (GRIWM) method to estimate the extinction date of X. mcgregori, based on the data presented here as well as 6 other dates derived from X. mcgregori sites. On this basis, we estimated a last occurrence ~900 BP. The cause or causes of this extinction, as well as the many others that occurred in late Quaternary of the Greater Antilles, remain a matter of debate. The likeliest inference is that these losses were largely if not completely anthropogenically driven. Although many species and populations of primates are critically threatened today, the loss of X. mcgregori stands as the most recent species-level extinction within Anthropoidea corroborated by radiometric evidence. El primate de Jamaica Xenothrix mcgregori, considerado alternativamente como un Pitheciidae o como un Platyrrhini troncal, fue la rama terminal de un clado que probablemente ingresó a las Indias Occidentales al menos en el Mioceno Temprano, aunque su linaje está representado únicamente por fósiles del Cuaternario. Aquí presentamos una nueva datación radiocarbónica de ca. 1,477 ± 34 AP para la aparición más reciente documentada de esta especie en el registro fósil. También empleamos el método Gaussian-resampled inverse-weighted de McInerny et al. (GRIWM) para estimar el momento de extinción de X. mcgregori, basado tanto en datos presentados aquí, así como en otros seis fechados derivados de sitios con este primate. De otra forma, estimamos el último registro en ca. 900 AP. La causa o causas de esta extinción, así como las otras que ocurrieron en el Cuaternario tardío en las Antillas Mayores siguen siendo un tema de debate. La inferencia más probable es que estas pérdidas fueron en gran medida, si no completamente, impulsadas por la acción antrópica. Aunque muchas especies y poblaciones de primates están críticamente amenazadas hoy en día, la pérdida de X. mcgregori es la extinción más reciente a nivel específico dentro de Anthropoidea corroborada por evidencia radiométrica.

Figures (9)

Fig. 1.—Map of Jamaica depicting archaeological, Xenothrix mcgregori, and paleontological sites that have radiocarbon dates available, with k sites labeled. Darker symbols indicate older dates. Specimens of X. mcgregori first were recovered through the efforts of Harold Anthony in January 1920 at Long Mile Cave in north central Jamaica (Fig. 1; Anthony n.d.; Williams and Koopman 1952). The specimens remained undescribed until Williams and Koopman (1952) designated a partial man- dible preserving the left 2 molars (m1—2; AMNH 148198) as the type specimen of the new species. Although these authors briefly noted the presence of associated postcranial material in the Anthony collection, they did not assign any of it to the X. mcgregori hypodigm, and the description of the Long Mile Cave X. mcgregori femur (AMNH 259900), os coxae (AMNH 259904), and tibiae (AMNH 259902, 259903) had to wait another 40 years (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991). Though the os coxae has definitively primate morphology, the tibiae and femur are different morphologically from other known primate species and were, in part, assigned to X. mcgregori by MacPhee and Fleagle (1991) based on their association with the type specimen and the os coxae. That being said, the Long Mile Cave femur does possess a primate-like greater and lesser trochanter, femoral condyles consistent with a primate-like arboreal locomotor pattern, and falls within = cas! | ES SS This new collection of primate material confirms and further elucidates the unique morphology and adaptations of X. mcgre- gori. The 3-5 kg primate (MacPhee and Meldrum 2006; Cooke and Halenar 2012) had a robust postcranium consistent with slow arboreal quadrupedalism and climbing (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991; MacPhee and Meldrum 2006). Craniodentally, it was unique among platyrrhines in exhibiting a low-cusped, low-crowned dentition, with a dental formula convergent on that of mainland callitrichines (Rosenberger 1977; MacPhee

Fig. 1.—Map of Jamaica depicting archaeological, Xenothrix mcgregori, and paleontological sites that have radiocarbon dates available, with k sites labeled. Darker symbols indicate older dates. Specimens of X. mcgregori first were recovered through the efforts of Harold Anthony in January 1920 at Long Mile Cave in north central Jamaica (Fig. 1; Anthony n.d.; Williams and Koopman 1952). The specimens remained undescribed until Williams and Koopman (1952) designated a partial man- dible preserving the left 2 molars (m1—2; AMNH 148198) as the type specimen of the new species. Although these authors briefly noted the presence of associated postcranial material in the Anthony collection, they did not assign any of it to the X. mcgregori hypodigm, and the description of the Long Mile Cave X. mcgregori femur (AMNH 259900), os coxae (AMNH 259904), and tibiae (AMNH 259902, 259903) had to wait another 40 years (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991). Though the os coxae has definitively primate morphology, the tibiae and femur are different morphologically from other known primate species and were, in part, assigned to X. mcgregori by MacPhee and Fleagle (1991) based on their association with the type specimen and the os coxae. That being said, the Long Mile Cave femur does possess a primate-like greater and lesser trochanter, femoral condyles consistent with a primate-like arboreal locomotor pattern, and falls within = cas! | ES SS This new collection of primate material confirms and further elucidates the unique morphology and adaptations of X. mcgre- gori. The 3-5 kg primate (MacPhee and Meldrum 2006; Cooke and Halenar 2012) had a robust postcranium consistent with slow arboreal quadrupedalism and climbing (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991; MacPhee and Meldrum 2006). Craniodentally, it was unique among platyrrhines in exhibiting a low-cusped, low-crowned dentition, with a dental formula convergent on that of mainland callitrichines (Rosenberger 1977; MacPhee

Fig. 2.—Xenothrix mcgregori femora. AMNH 268003—the specimen dated here—shown in anterior (A) and posterior (B) views. AMNH 259900—found in Long Mile Cave, the same site from which the X. mcgregori type specimen (AMNH 148198) comes—shown in anterior (C) and posterior (D) views. Scale bar is 1 cm.

Fig. 2.—Xenothrix mcgregori femora. AMNH 268003—the specimen dated here—shown in anterior (A) and posterior (B) views. AMNH 259900—found in Long Mile Cave, the same site from which the X. mcgregori type specimen (AMNH 148198) comes—shown in anterior (C) and posterior (D) views. Scale bar is 1 cm.

Table 1.—Endemic nonvolant mammals of Jamaica and their last occurrences.

Table 1.—Endemic nonvolant mammals of Jamaica and their last occurrences.

Fig. 3.—Radiocarbon chronology of mammal species endemic to Jamaica, where each black circle represents a calibrated radiocarbon date asso- ciated with a species. Not all dates are direct (see Supplementary Data SD2).

Fig. 3.—Radiocarbon chronology of mammal species endemic to Jamaica, where each black circle represents a calibrated radiocarbon date asso- ciated with a species. Not all dates are direct (see Supplementary Data SD2).

Table 2.—'‘C ages obtained from a distal femur of Xenothrix mcgregori (AMNH 268003) using varying molecular weights of recovered “bon -ollagen” and preservative removal treatments. Values are reported following the conventions of Stuvier and Polach (1977).

Table 2.—'‘C ages obtained from a distal femur of Xenothrix mcgregori (AMNH 268003) using varying molecular weights of recovered “bon -ollagen” and preservative removal treatments. Values are reported following the conventions of Stuvier and Polach (1977).

Table 3.—Combined “C ages for Xenothrix mcgregori (AMNH 268003) at 95.4% CI. We retained the combined calibrated date of 1,477 c: BP as 14165X (row shaded gray). as its likely contamination with Butvar. The remaining 3 dates (UCIAMS 14151, 14156, 14159) can be accurately combined, and we denote this composite result as UCIAMS 1415X. This selection includes UCIAMS 14151, which is a > 30 kDa sam- ple that is slightly older than the 3-30 kDa samples, but falls within the same calibration curve range as the 3-30 kDa sam- ples. By including this slightly older date, we remove the bias of using only the younger 2 samples that support human-mon- key coexistence, hence this represents a conservative choice. Calibrated, this result suggests the persistence of X. mcgregori until 1,477 + 34 cal BP, providing a new last occurrence date for Jamaican primates and endemic primates of the Caribbean as a whole. and only direct date for X. mcgregori. Given the similarities of multiple data subsets, including our most conservative estimate containing the 5 oldest dates (Supplementary Data SD4), we retain the extinction estimate of 887 cal BP from our largest sample of 7 dates.

Table 3.—Combined “C ages for Xenothrix mcgregori (AMNH 268003) at 95.4% CI. We retained the combined calibrated date of 1,477 c: BP as 14165X (row shaded gray). as its likely contamination with Butvar. The remaining 3 dates (UCIAMS 14151, 14156, 14159) can be accurately combined, and we denote this composite result as UCIAMS 1415X. This selection includes UCIAMS 14151, which is a > 30 kDa sam- ple that is slightly older than the 3-30 kDa samples, but falls within the same calibration curve range as the 3-30 kDa sam- ples. By including this slightly older date, we remove the bias of using only the younger 2 samples that support human-mon- key coexistence, hence this represents a conservative choice. Calibrated, this result suggests the persistence of X. mcgregori until 1,477 + 34 cal BP, providing a new last occurrence date for Jamaican primates and endemic primates of the Caribbean as a whole. and only direct date for X. mcgregori. Given the similarities of multiple data subsets, including our most conservative estimate containing the 5 oldest dates (Supplementary Data SD4), we retain the extinction estimate of 887 cal BP from our largest sample of 7 dates.

Fig. 4.—Calibrated radiocarbon dates of latest Xenothrix mcgregori occurrences in the fossil record and earliest occurrences of non-European human populations from the archaeological record. For each individual date (denoted by laboratory ID), black brackets represent the 95.4% prob- ability range of a given date; black underlines represent the SD; black cross represents the median calibrated age. The dashed line indicates the timing of European arrival (1494 AD). Light gray shading indicates potential overlap of X. mcgregori and indigenous human populations from the 95.4% probability range of their radiocarbon dates.

Fig. 4.—Calibrated radiocarbon dates of latest Xenothrix mcgregori occurrences in the fossil record and earliest occurrences of non-European human populations from the archaeological record. For each individual date (denoted by laboratory ID), black brackets represent the 95.4% prob- ability range of a given date; black underlines represent the SD; black cross represents the median calibrated age. The dashed line indicates the timing of European arrival (1494 AD). Light gray shading indicates potential overlap of X. mcgregori and indigenous human populations from the 95.4% probability range of their radiocarbon dates.

Table 4.—Results of Gaussian-resampled, inverse-weighted McInerny et al. (2006; GRIWM) method of inferring extinction timing, includins the number of dates analyzed (N), the upper boundary of the C/ (2.5%), median extinction time, and lower boundary of the CI (97.5%). ‘See Supplementary Data SD5 for more information. Excludes median 329 cal BP.

Table 4.—Results of Gaussian-resampled, inverse-weighted McInerny et al. (2006; GRIWM) method of inferring extinction timing, includins the number of dates analyzed (N), the upper boundary of the C/ (2.5%), median extinction time, and lower boundary of the CI (97.5%). ‘See Supplementary Data SD5 for more information. Excludes median 329 cal BP.

‘Giovas and Fitzpatrick (2014). >Rouse (1993). ‘Pino and Castellanos (1985). ‘MacPhee et al. (2003). *Rivero and Arredondo (1991). *Vanderwal (1967). This study. *Moore (1991). ‘Rimoli (1977). Table 5.—Distribution and last occurrence of native primate species in the Caribbean. No native primates have been recovered from Puerte Rico. Current data suggest plausible temporal overlap between humans and monkeys in Jamaica and Hispaniola; however, radiometric dates of archaeological material should be treated with caution.

‘Giovas and Fitzpatrick (2014). >Rouse (1993). ‘Pino and Castellanos (1985). ‘MacPhee et al. (2003). *Rivero and Arredondo (1991). *Vanderwal (1967). This study. *Moore (1991). ‘Rimoli (1977). Table 5.—Distribution and last occurrence of native primate species in the Caribbean. No native primates have been recovered from Puerte Rico. Current data suggest plausible temporal overlap between humans and monkeys in Jamaica and Hispaniola; however, radiometric dates of archaeological material should be treated with caution.

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