China's Sanxingdui civilization to Bhārata's Mauryan empire: an attested 'silken' connection and its potential implication for Indian chronology (original) (raw)

The B of ABC of Indian chronology: Dating Buddha's Parinirvāṇa, A critique of Heinz Bechert's echo chamber

2019

The parinirvāṇa of Gautama Buddha is a milestone of singular consequence in Indic chronology, serving as the landmark for dating most events which compose the timeline of our history. In this paper, the authors use astronomical methods to comprehensively compile, analyse, define constraints and determine the unique solution which meets the criteria considered for the most probable year for the death of Buddha. Subsequently, in light of recent archaeological evidence, not only do we demonstrate how key archaeology-related conclusions in Heinz Bechert edited 'When did the Buddha live?' are acutely less tenable in 2019, but also deduce and propose a terminus ante quem (546 B.C.) for Buddha's death. Thereafter, in the philology section, through a critical synoptic analysis we identify problematics that, in our assessment, vitiate the so-called corrected long chronology, short chronology and Bechert's proposal. We believe this paper addresses a crucial void in the post-1995 literature pertaining to Buddha's chronological epoch in being perhaps the first substantive critical assessment of some aspects of the Bechert volume, from an Indic lens, underpinned by a scientific approach.

इतिहास History of Hindu Civilization 7th to 4th millennium BCE

इतिहास --Tin-Bronze Revolution, 4th millennium BCE. Sarasvatī navigable Himalayan glacial waterway linked seafaring metal merchants on the Ancient MaritimeTin Route between Hanoi (Vietnam) and Haifa (Israel) -- Rakhigarhi, Hariyūpiyā Principal paṭṭaṇa, riverine port cities; तृत्सु Tr̥tsu of Sarasvatī Civilization are Yamunā dwellers -- Sarasvatī Himalayan glacial river, in Rgveda, identity of locality हरि-यूपीया as Harappa and Rakhigarhi as principal paṭṭaṇa, riverine ports -- Yamunā-dwellers Tr̥tsus glorified Indra; Tr̥tsu, white-robed, with braided hair, skilled in song Bon Chiang (Thailand) artifacts using the thermoluminescence technique resulted in a range from 4420 BCE to 3400 BCE, which make the site the earliest Bronze Age culture in the world. A hypothesis is posited that this fifth millennium BCE site evidences that a Maritimje Tin Route which linked Hanoi (Vietnam) and Haifa (Israel) existed in 4th millennium BCE, supplying the resources of tin from the largest tin belt of the globe (in the basins of navigable waterways of Himalayan rivers Mekong, Irrawaddy, Salween) gave the impetus to the Tin-Bronze Revolution. This monograph provides evidences for the role played by guilds of artisans/seafaring merchants of Sarasvati Civilization using Brahmaputra and Ganga as transit navigable waterways documenting (using Indus Script hypertexts) the wealth-production activities for the newly found metalwork products, sustaining and promoting this Ancient Maritime Tin Route which predated the Silk Road by two millennia. Astronomy has dated Mahabharata events with astonishing precision (Narahari Achar's work). Dwaraka submergence is REAL and mentioned in the epic, Krishna tells yadava to move out. Sangam text attests to 42 generations of Velir from Dwaraka. Images of Balarama and Krishna are on ancient coins. That the region of Sarasvati-Sindhu river basins was subject to frequent earthquakes caused by plate tectonics of the Indian plate moving northwards jutting into European plate at the pace of 6 cms. per year (lifting up the Himalayan ranges by 1 cm per year), is also attested in the Mahabharata epic which documents the enormity of the earthquakes and records the engulfing of Dwaraka by seawaves and submergence of Dwaraka. The migration of River Yamuna carrying the waters of Glacial Sarasvati from Paonta Saheb to join the Ganga creating Triveni Sangamam and themigration of River Sutlej by a 90-degree turn at Ropar, to join the Sindhu river, cut off the glacial perennial waters to Vedic River Sarasvati. Thus, the Sarasvati River become a monsoon-based river with stretches of breaks in the navigable channel and the creation of saras, 'lakes' in the regions of Haryana and Rajasthan. The snapping of the navigability of the River Sarasvati impacted the seafaring merchants of Meluhha who had crossed the Persian Gulf beyond Dholavira-Surkotada in Rann of Kutch to conduct maritime trade. The snapping of trade connections led to migrations of people eastwards and southwards as evidenced by the settlements of Rakhigarhi (near Delhi) and Daimabad on Pravara River, a tributary of River Godavari. That the migrations occurred southwards is attested in Purananuru, a Sangam text in Tamil. Recurrent earthquakes caused by plate tectonics are also indicated in ancient texts. For example, after Krishna’s atman departs the mortal body--- विवृद्ध मूशिकारथ्या विभिन्नमणिकास्तथा केशानखाश्च सुप्तानामद्यन्ते मूशिकैर्निशी (MBh., Mausala, 2.5) चीचीकूचीति वाशन्ति सारिका वृष्णिवेश्मसु नोपशाम्यति शब्दश्च स दिवारात्रमेव हि (MBh., Mausala, 2.6) अन्वकुर्वन्नुलूकानाम् सारसा विरुतं तथा अजाः शिवानाम् विरुतमन्वकुर्वत भारत (MBh., Mausala, 2.7) Streets swarmed with rats and mice, earthen pots showed cracks or were broken from no apparent cause, sarika_s chirped ceaselessly day and night, sa_ras hooted like owls, goats cried like jackals, pigeons departed from their homes, and asses brayed aloud in disconsonant and awful voices (Ganguly, 1998). निर्याते तु जने तस्मिन् सागरो मकरालयः द्वारकां रत्नसंपूर्णं जलेन प्लावयत् तदा (MBh., Mausala, 7.41) तदद्भुतमभिप्रेक्ष्य द्वारकावासिनो जनाः तूर्णात् तूर्णतरम् जग्मुरहो दैवकितिब्रुवन् (MBh., Mausala, 7.43) The sea, the abode of monsters, engulfed the gem-filled Dwraka with waves soon after the people departed the place. Seeing this astounding incident, the citizens of Dwaraka ran away, exclaiming, ‘O, our fate’. (Ganguly, 1998). Reference to Dwaraka as Thuvarai in an ancient Sangam text Ayasipur is a Vedic expression. अयस् n. iron , metal RV. &c अयस्मय (अयोमय) a. (-यी f.) Ved. Made of iron or of any metal. -यी N. of one of the three habita- tions of Asuras. pur पुर् f. (Nom. sing. पूः; instr. du. पूर्भ्याम्) 1 A town, fortified town; thus ayasipur refers to a fortification made of stone or metal. (पूरण्यभिव्यक्तमुखप्रसादा R.16.23) துவரை² tuvarai, n. See துவாரகை. உவரா வீகைத் துவரை யாண்டு (புறநா. 201). துவாரகை tuvārakai, n. < dvārakā. The capital of Kṛṣṇa on the western side of Gujarat, supposed to have been submerged by the sea, one of catta-puri, q. v.; சத்தபுரியுளொன் றாயதும் கடலாற்கொள்ளப்பட்ட தென்று கருதப்படுவதும் கண்ணபிரான் அரசுபுரிந்ததுமான நகரம். This Vedic expression ayasipur is consistent with the description of Dwaraka in Purananuru as a fortification with walls made of copper (metal). இவர் யார் என்குவை ஆயின் இவரே ஊருடன் இரவலர்க்கு அருளித் தேருடன் முல்லைக்கு ஈத்த செல்லா நல்லிசை படுமணி யானைப் பறம்பின் கோமான் நெடுமாப் பாரி மகளிர் யானே தந்தை தோழன் இவர் என் மகளிர் அந்தணன் புலவன் கொண்டு வந்தனனே நீயே வட பால் முனிவன் தடவினுள் தோன்றிச் செம்பு புனைந்து இயற்றிய சேண் நெடும் புரிசை உவரா ஈகைத் துவரை யாண்டு நாற்பத்து ஒன்பது வழி முறை வந்த வேளிருள் வேள விறல் போர் அண்ணல் தார் அணி யானைச் சேட்டு இருங்கோவே ஆண் கடன் உடைமையின் பாண் கடன் ஆற்றிய ஒலியற் கண்ணிப் புலிகடிமாஅல் யான் தர இவரைக் கொண்மதி வான் கவித்து இரும் கடல் உடுத்த இவ் வையகத்து அரும் திறல் பொன்படு மால் வரைக் கிழவ வென் வேல் உடலுநர் உட்கும் தானைக் கெடல்அரும் குரைய நாடு கிழவோயே ! If you ask who they are, they are his daughters, he who granted cities to those who came in need and earned great fame for gifting a chariot to the jasmine vine to climb, he who owned elephants with jingling bells, the lord of Parampu, the great king Pāri. They are my daughters now. As for me, I am their father’s friend, a Brahmin, a poet who has brought them here. You are the best Vēlir of the Vēlir clan, with a heritage of forty nine generations of Vēlirs who gave without limits, who ruled Thuvarai with its long walls that seemed to be made of copper, the city that appeared in the sacrificial pit of a northern sage (Yaja). King who is victorious in battles! Great king with garlanded elephants! Pulikatimāl with a bright garland who knows what a man’s responsibility is, and what you can do for bards! I am offering them. Please accept them. Lord of the sky high mountain that yields gold! You whose strength cannot be equaled on the earth that is covered by an arched sky and surrounded by the ocean, you whose army puts fear into enemies with victorious spears! O ruler of a land that can never be ruined! Irunkovel is supposed to be 49th generation of a king from (Thuvarai) Dwaraka. It can mean two things. Assuming about 30 years per generation, 1500 years earlier Dwaraka which had walls made of copper. Dating the early phase of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization to ca. 3500 BCE, and the submergence of Dwaraka to ca. 1900 BCE (a date indicative of the drying up of Vedic River Sarasvati due to migrations of Sutlej and Yamuna rivers which were tributaries bringing in glacier waters), which necessitated the movements of Sarasvati's children down the coastline to Kerala, this text places Sangam literature text of Purananuru to ca. 400 BCE. (Source: http://historum.com/asian-history/76340-satyaputras-earliest-indo-aryanizers-south-india-3.html Migration from Tuvarai (Dwaraka) is attested in a 12th century inscription (Pudukottai State inscriptions, No. 120) cited by Avvai S. Turaicaami in Puranaanuru, II (SISSW Publishing Soc., Madras, 1951). •துவரை மாநகர் நின்ருபொந்த தொன்மை பார்த்துக்கிள்ளிவேந்தன் நிகரில் தென் கவரி நாடு தன்னில் நிகழ்வித்த நிதிவாளர் Archaeo-metallurgical and seafaring traditions of the Civilization are attested in regions of southern Bharat The archaeo-metallurgical and seafaring traditions of the Civilization are attested in Southern Bharat as exemplified by the following: https://www.scribd.com/doc/289709143/Metal-casting-Traditions-South-Asia-PT-Craddock-2014 http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol50\_2015\_1\_Art05.pdf Indian Journal of Hisory of Science, 50.1 (2015), 55-82 PT Craddock, Metal casting traditions of South Asia: Continuity and Innovation

Primary Sources and Asian Pasts: Beyond the Boundaries of the “Gupta Period”

Primary Sources and Asian Pasts

Stone inscriptions, manuscripts, monuments, sculptures, ceramic fragments: these are just some of the primary sources for the study of premodern Asia. How might scholars chart new directions in Asian studies following these historical traces of past societies and polities? To address this question, this book unites perspectives from leading scholars and emerging voices in the fields of archaeology, art history, philology, and cultural history to revisit the primary historical sources that ground their respective studies, and to reflect upon the questions that can be asked of these sources, the light they may shed on Asian pasts, and the limits of these inquiries. This volume contributes to a more expansive research aim: the research initiative Asia Beyond Boundaries: Politics, Region, Language, and the State, a collaborative project funded by the European Research Council (ERC) from 2014 to 2020. One of the core aims of this ERC project has been to rethink and revisit established scholarly narratives of premodern social and political networks in early South Asia. In doing so, the scholars involved considered how complex trajectories of cultural and economic connectivity supported the development of recognizable transregional patterns across Asia, particularly those patterns that have been commonly regarded as "classical." Anchored in "Gupta Period" South Asiaa remarkably productive period of cultural and political change that extended from the fourth to the sixth century CE-Asia Beyond Boundaries situates the innovations of these centuries within the broader South and Southeast Asian ecumene through the integration of archaeological, epigraphic, art historical, and philological research. While the research initiative of the Asia Beyond Boundaries project occasioned both the conference and the volume inspired by it, the current publication also looks beyond it. Situating the "Gupta Period" and South Asia in a broader context, the present volume expands upon some of the core research questions that animate the larger project by considering what primary historical sources may tell us about the premodern world. To challenge traditional boundaries and create a more capacious view of Asian studies, varied sources, methods, and perspectives are joined in conversation. This introduction frames the volume's contributions in light of advances in adjacent fields, augmenting the core methodologies long established as the strengths of each regional discipline as traditionally conceivedphilology, archival research, archaeological excavation, field research, etc.

THE CHRONOLOGY OF INDIA: From Mahabharata to Medieval Era Volume II

Prior to the colonial era, Indians traditionally followed a well-established chronological history as narrated in the Puranas starting from the Mahabharata era to the Gupta period. The regnal periods of the Brihadratha, Pradyota and Sisunaga dynasties of the Magadha Empire given in the Puranas clearly indicate that Mahapadma Nanda founded his Nanda dynasty 1500 years after the Mahabharata war. Evidently, the traditional chronology places Buddha in the 19th century BCE and Chandragupta Maurya in the beginning of the 16th century BCE. Colonial historians identified Sandrokottus with Chandragupta Maurya and dated him as the contemporary of Alexander and the date of Buddha nirvana has been brought forward by 1380 years and fixed around 483 BCE. In fact, the complex problems in Indian chronology arise from a misunderstanding of the epochs of ancient Indian eras. I have discovered that the Kurtakoti copper plate dated Saka 530 refers to a total solar eclipse occurred on 9th May 53 BCE in Northern Karnataka which conclusively establishes that the Saka era commenced in 583 BCE and the Sakanta era commenced in 78 CE. Historians mistakenly mixed up these two epochs which led to a chronological error of 660 years. Out of two contemporary copper plates found at Pranaveshvara temple, Talagunda, one plate is dated in the Saka era whereas, another is dated in the Sakanta era. Apart from this error of 660 years, later Jain historians inadvertently identified Ujjain King Chandragupta, a disciple of Bhadrabahu with the Maurya King Chandragupta which made Mahavira, a contemporary of Buddha. In reality, Buddha attained nirvana 675 years before the year of Mahavira nirvana. Puranas and the Burmese inscriptions clearly indicate that Buddha attained nirvana in 1864 BCE. Recent excavations at Lumbini and the radiocarbon samples collected from the Trench C5 at the center of the Buddhist shrine at Lumbini indicate an earliest date of 1681 BCE. There is a chronological error of 1380 years.

From the 'ABC of Indian Chronology' : Buddha's epoch (April 17, 2021)

The Chronology of India From Mahabharata to Medieval era Volume I

Dating with Procrustes: Early Pramāṇavāda Chronology Revisited

2019

Dating Indian philosophy almost invariably ends up in a Procrustean bed. Chronologies, whether traditional or modern, are not entirely absent, but they tend to be frustratingly approximate and bitterly controversial. The timeline of major events and figures in Indian Buddhism is no exception to this paradigm of haziness, probably the only certitude of the subcontinent's historiography. The present essay ventures out into one of its chapters without hoping to dispel the fog. If anything, it will only stir it. In spite of dealing with topics related to Buddhist logic, this essay is not the product of a well-reasoned plan, let alone extensive expertise in the field. While tackling a different project, it became necessary to touch upon the dating of Dignāga, the man who found the Buddhist theory on knowledge a pile of mostly unpolished bricks and left it an elaborate edifice of logic (hetuvidyā) and epistemology (pramāṇavāda). 1 Rather than simply copying Dignāga's dates from a standard reference source, I thought a bit of fact checking wouldn't do any harm. I couldn't have been more wrong. Before I knew it, I was scribbling far too many a line for a mere footnote. And tinkering with Dignāga's dates set off a chain reaction affecting the chronology of his successors. The more I looked into the details, the clearer it appeared that there is sufficient room for the revisitation of the timeline. Eventually, the footnote exploded into a long-though-far-fromcomprehensive essay on the early Pramāṇavāda chronology from the 4 th to the 7 th century. 1 The famous Tibetan scholar Bu-ston Rin-chen-grub (1290-1364) tells us that Vasubandhu's pupil who proved himself sharper than his Master in matters of scholarly accomplishment (Obermiller 1996 [1932], 149, renders 'in the field of logic') was Dignāga (dByig-gnyen gyi slob ma tshad ma rang bas mkhas pa dpal ldan Phyogs-kyi-glang-po ni | Chos-B, Chandra ed. #847 = Ya 108a3). Tāranātha (/Kun-dga'-snying-po) (1575-1634), the other bright star of the Tibetan historiography, includes Dignāga among the Six Jewels (rgyan drug) of the Buddhist Dharma. Together with Nāgārjuna (Tib. Klu-sgrub) and Asaṅga (Thogs-med), Dignāga (Phyogs-kyi-glang-po) is honoured with the title of 'author of original treatises' (gzhung byed pa po). These founders of philosophical systems, as we would call them nowadays, are paired with three authors of commentaries ('grel byed), or in modern parlance, exegetes refining and elaborating upon these systems: Āryadeva (Phags-palha), Vasubandhu (dByig-gnyen), and Dharmakīrti (Chos-kyi-grags-pa) (Chos-T p. 144, ll. 5-8; cf.

An Outline of Indian Chronology

2023

The antiquity and the chronology of ancient Indian civilization can be presented in Seven distinct stages as follows: 1. Early Vedic Period (14500-11500 BCE) 2. Vedic Period (11500-10500 BCE) 3. Post Vedic Period (10500-6777 BCE) 4. The 28 th Treta Yuga Period (6777-5577 BCE) and the Ramayana Era (5677-5577 BCE) 5. The 28 th Dvapara Yuga Period (5577-3177 BCE) and the Mahabharata Era (3162 BCE) 6. The 28 th Kaliyuga Period (from the 32 nd century BCE onwards) and the Mahabharata Era: From Mahabharata War (3162 BCE) to King Vikramaditya (1 BCE) 7. The Medieval Period (from 1 CE to 1761 CE)

Early Indian History, essay on evidence for chronology of northern India c. 100 BC-AD 300

Buddhist Reliquaries from Ancient India by Michael Willis, 2000

The chronology in this paper should be adjusted to take account of the redating of Kanishka era year 1 to AD 127 (Falk) and Azes era year 1 to 46 or 47 BC, see Cribb 2005 (http://www.academia.edu/3026258/The\_Greek\_Kingdom\_of\_Bactria\_its\_Coinage\_and\_its\_Collapse). Also see Falk and Bennett (http://www.academia.edu/349875/Macedonian\_Intercalary\_Months\_and\_the\_Era\_of\_Azes): CB personal message: Since the Azes era autumn-based year 1 is 48/7 while the spring-based is 47/6, the overlap year of 47 is the better approximation; AD 127 is the better approximation for 1 Kanishka for the same reason. Similarly, if 1 Yavana era started in both spring and autumn based 175/4, i.e. the two systems are in the opposite phase to the Azes calendar years, then 175 is the better Julian approximation for year 1 Yavana era.

Buddhist Reliquaries from Ancient India

2000

Placing the Buddhist and predominantly local history given in the preceding chapters within a larger political framework poses a number of problems due to the fragmentary and seemingly contradictory state of the historical evidence. This situation is a common feature of Indian history but not unique to it, there being similar gaps in the ancient Near East and elsewhere. The problem of establishing a general and workable chronology for ancient India is not insurmountable, but it does require an examination of the relevant evidence as a whole and, more critically, not treating any historical question in isolation. While the following essay is not encyclopedic in this regard, it presents an overview of the crucial data in sufficient detail to provide a viable chronology of the two centuries at the beginning of the current era. 1 There are two important starting points for an examination of Indian chronology in the centuries immediately after the start of the common era. The first is coastal western India where there was contact between the ports controlled by local Indian rulers and incoming traders from the Mediterranean world. The second is the kingdom of the Ku~iii;tas which had contacts with the Chinese military regime in Xinjiang. Both these points of contact were documented in written sources which can be dated with reasonable precision in terms of the common era.

Dating Gautama Buddha's Parinirvāṇa: A critique of Heinz Bechert's echo chamber

The Mythic Society, 2018

The parinirvāṇa of Gautama Buddha is a milestone of singular consequence in Indic chronology, serving as the landmark for dating most events which compose the timeline of our history. In this paper, the authors use astronomical methods to comprehensively compile, analyse, define constraints and determine the unique solution which meets the criteria considered for the most probable year for the death of Buddha. Subsequently, in light of recent archaeological evidence, not only do we demonstrate how key archaeology-related conclusions in Heinz Bechert edited 'When did the Buddha live?' are acutely less tenable in 2018, but also deduce and propose a terminus ante quem (546 B.C.) for Buddha's death. Thereafter, in the philology section, through a critical synoptic analysis we identify problematics that, in our assessment, vitiate the so-called corrected long chronology, short chronology and Bechert's proposal. We believe this paper addresses a crucial void in the post-1995 literature pertaining to Buddha's chronological epoch in being perhaps the first substantive critical assessment of some aspects of the Bechert volume, from an Indic lens, underpinned by a scientific approach. Note: This paper is a fuller, more comprehensive — with more exhaustive data and analysis — version of this paper: https://www.academia.edu/38794701/The\_B\_of\_ABC\_of\_Indian\_chronology\_Dating\_Buddhas\_Parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a\_A\_critique\_of\_Heinz\_Becherts\_echo\_chamber.

2020. Evidence for Early South Asia: Indic Sources

Handbook of Ancient Afro-Eurasian Economies Volume 1: Contexts, 2020

This chapter is an introduction to literary, epigraphic, archaeological, and numismatic sources for the study of economic history of South Asia (300 BCE and 300 CE). It is an open-access article available at https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110607741-015

Investigating the Astronomical Histories of India and Southeast Asia: The Role of Stone Inscriptions

Historical & Cultural Astronomy, 2021

Stone inscriptions from all over India provide records of eclipses, solstices and planetary conjunctions, although they were written for non-astronomical purposes, like grant and donation edicts. They have been very useful in understanding the observational tools and methods for prediction of eclipses. Also traceable are a few sightings of comets and supernovae, and information on the evolution of calendars. This study can be extended from South Asia, to include Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia, all countries where the influence of the Hindu calendar is, or once was, very strong. This study will throw light on many new aspects, such as the evolution of calendars and the influence of the Indian system of time measurement as early as the third century BCE. Many interesting records of planetary conjunctions also are available. Two records hint at a possible sighting of the supernova of CE 1054, while another may describe a pre-planetary nebula event...

Life of Parīkṣit and Saptarṣi maṇḍala, an era dated from 3176 BCE; RV 9.107 adores ऋत्विजः Reasons why Kali Yuga era begins 3102 BCE

--वसुदेवसुतं देवं कंस चाणूर मर्दनम्‌ । A breath-taking moment of divine manifestation detailed in MBh with jyotiṣa pramāṇa. --rationale for the next Kali Era 3102 BCE; to underscore the importance of ethical behaviour by sovereign rulers, kings. --Why was the Saptarṣi maṇḍala, an era which started in 3176 BCE was followed by Kali Yuga Era calendar starting 3102 BCE? This date occurred in the life-time of Śrī Kr̥ṣṇa who lived through the Kali Yuga and exited in 3031 a year after the Yadava Civil War. See: Krishna avatāra occurs between 3112 and 3031 BCE --ज्योतिष view presented by Prof. Srinivasa Raghavan https://tinyurl.com/yhjdrn88 --I submit that the Kali Yuga Era calendar start year 3102 is related to the manifestation of Śrī Kr̥ṣṇa avatāra, recording the killing of Kamsa by a 11-year young Kr̥ṣṇa evidencing his Kr̥ṣṇa avatāra, divine manifestation. This event occurred to infuse an ethic in sovereigns; this is explained by Śrī Kr̥ṣṇa. -- I submit that the Kali Yuga Era start date 3102 of the Calendar is NOT related to the end of Kr̥ṣṇa avatāra with the ascent of Kr̥ṣṇa to heaven in 3031 BCE. -- The start date of 3102 is chosen by astronomers because of the unique assemblage of planets in that year, a year in which the divine manifestation event occurred -- वसुदेवसुतं देवं कंस चाणूर मर्दनम्‌ । There is another ephocal reason which is related to the restoration of ethical behaviour by sovereign rulers, kings; Kamsa had transgressed the ethical responsibility and became an embodiment of unethical rule. Kamsa dethroned his own father Ugrasena. Kamsa became tyrant ruler of the Vrishni kingdom with its capital at Mathura. Killing of Kamsa occurred in 3102 BCE and is narrated in Udyoga Parva, by daśārha who is Kṛṣṇa https://tinyurl.com/mnf82tbe This episode explains the significance of the killing of Kamsa, an episode recollected when Bhishma expresses his anguish at Duryodhana's irresponsible behaviour.Kr̥ṣṇa responds and comments on the behaviour of Duryodhana and suggests that time has come for Kuru elders to forcibly seize and bind the wicked king Duryodhana:“…this is great transgression, of which all the elders of the Kuru race are becoming guilty, for they do not forcibly seize and bind this wicked king in the enjoyment of sovereignty. Ye chastiser of foes, I think the time hath come for doing this. Then, he goes on to explain the thrilling episode of a 11-year old son of Devaki killing Kamsa. This killing of Kamsa is clearly an epochal event which happened in 3102 BCE when Kr̥ṣṇa was 11 years’ young. This may explain why the Hindu tradition chose the date 17/18 February 3102 BCE as the date of start of Kali Yuga. Source. KD Abhyankar and GB Bhallabh --ṛtv-ij m. (k) a priest (usually four are enumerated, viz. Hotṛ, Adhvaryu, Brahman, and Udgātṛ; each of them has three companions or helpers, so that the total number is sixteen, viz. hotṛ, Maitrāvaruṇa, Acchāvāka, Grāva-stut; adhvaryu, Prati-prasthātṛ, Neṣṭṛ, Un-netṛ; brahman, Brāhmaṇācchaṉsin, Agnīdhra, Potṛ; udgātṛ, Prastotṛ, Pratihartṛ, Subrahmaṇya, ĀśvŚr. iv, 1, 4-6 ), RV. ; AV. ; TS. ; ŚBr. ; KātyŚr. सप्तर्षि पु० ब० व० । सप्त ऋषयः संज्ञात्वात् कर्म० । “मरीचि-रत्रिः पुलहः पुलस्त्यः क्रतुरङ्गिराः । वशिष्ठश्चमहाभाग! सप्तैते ब्रह्मणः सुताः” इत्युक्तेषु सप्तसु ऋषिषु ।मन्वन्तरभेदे तेषा नामभेदा ऋषिशब्दे उक्ता १४५३ पृ०दृश्या । सप्तर्षिमण्डल त्रि० ६ त० । आकाशे नित्यं ध्रुवनक्षत्रपरि-भ्र मके नक्षत्रसप्तकात्मके नक्षत्रमण्डलभेदे “सप्तर्षिमण्डलंतस्माद्दृश्यते सर्वकोपरीति” पुराणम् तच्चारादिऋषिशब्दे १४५२ पृ० दृश्यम् ।--वाचस्पत्यम् सप्तर्षयः, पुं, भूम्नि, (सप्त ऋषयः ।) सप्तसंख्यकर्षयःतेषां नामानि यथा । मरीचिः १ अत्रिः २अङ्गिराः ३ पुलस्त्यः ४ पुलहः ५ क्रतुः ६ वशिष्ठः ७ ।इत्यमरः ॥ अपि च ।“मप्तर्षिमण्डलं तस्माद्दृश्यते सर्व्वतोपरि ।तत्र सप्तर्षयः सन्ति विनियुक्ताः प्रजासृजा ॥मरीचिरत्निः पुलहः पुलस्त्यः क्रतुरङ्गिराः ।वशिष्ठश्च महाभाग ब्रह्मणो मानसाः सुताः ॥सप्तब्राह्मण इत्येते उच्यन्ते ब्रह्मवादिभिः ।संभूतिरनसूया च क्षमा प्रीतिश्च सन्नतिः ॥अरुन्धतिस्तथा लज्जा तत्पत्न्यौ लोकमातरः ।एतासां तपसा चैतद्धार्य्यते भुवनत्रयम् ॥सन्ध्यात्रयमुपासीना गायत्त्रीजपतत्पराः ।तस्मिन्लोके वसन्त्येते ब्राह्मणाः ब्रह्मवादिनः ॥”इति पाद्मे स्वर्गखण्डे ११ अध्यायः ॥(प्रतिमन्वन्तरे सप्तर्षयो भिन्ना एवासन् । तद्-वृत्तान्तस्तु ऋषिशब्दे द्रष्टव्यः ॥)--शब्दकल्पद्रुमः In traditional Hindu astronomy, seven stars of Ursa Major are identified with the names of Saptarṣi. In ancient Indian astronomy, the asterism of the Big Dipper (part of the constellation of Ursa Major) is called saptarishi, with the seven stars representing seven rishis, namely "Vashistha", "Marichi", "Pulastya", "Pulaha", "Atri", "Angiras" and "Kratu". There is another star slightly visible within it, known as "Arundhati". Arundhati and Vashishtha are married, and together form the Mizar double. Saptarishis in each manvantara of the current kalpa (Śveta-Vārāha Kalpa) Manu (manvantara) Saptarishis Svayambhuva Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya, and Vasishtha Svarocisha Urja, Stambha, Prana, Nanda, Rishabha, Nischara and Arvarivat Uttama Kaukundihi, Kurundi, Dalaya, Sankha, Pravahita, Mita and Sammita (Sons of Vasistha) Tapasa/Tamasa Jyotirdhama, Prithu, Kavya, Chaitra, Agni, Vanaka and Pivara Raivata Hirannyaroma, Vedasrí, Urddhabahu, Vedabahu, Sudhaman, Parjanya and Mahamuni Chakshusha Sumedhas, Virajas, Havishmat, Uttama, Madhu, Abhinaman, and Sahishnnu Vaivasvata (current) Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Atri, Vashista, Gautama, Vishvamitra, Bharadvaja Surya-savarni Diptimat, Gslava, Parasurama, Kripa, Drauni or Ashwatthama, Vyasa and Rishyasringa Daksha-savarni Savana, Dyutimat, Bhavya, Vasu, Medhatithi, Jyotishman, and Satya Brahma-savarni Havishman, Sukriti, Satya, Apammurtti, Nabhaga, Apratimaujas and Satyaketu Dharma-savarni Nischara, Agnitejas, Vapushman, Vishnu, Aruni, Havishman and Anagha Rudra-savarni Tapaswi, Sutapas, Tapomurti, Taporati, Tapodhriti, Tapodyuti and Tapodhana Deva-savarni Nirmoha, Tatwadersin, Nishprakampa, Nirutsuka, Dhritimat, Avyaya and Sutapas Indra-savarni Agnibshu, Suchi, Aukra, Magadha, Gridhra, Yukta and Ajita Wilson, Horace Hayman; trans. (1840) "Vishńu Puráńa", Sacred-Texts.com. Contains an account of the several Manus and Manwantaras. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saptarishi Saptarṣi maṇḍala; Ursa Major Constellation As many of its common names allude, its shape is said to resemble a ladle, an agricultural plough, or wagon. In the context of Ursa Major, they are commonly drawn to represent the hindquarters and tail of the Great Bear. Starting with the "ladle" portion of the dipper and extending clockwise (eastward in the sky) through the handle, these stars are the following: • α Ursae Majoris, known by the Arabic name Dubhe ("the bear"), which at a magnitude of 1.79 is the 35th-brightest star in the sky and the second-brightest of Ursa Major. • β Ursae Majoris, called Merak ("the loins of the bear"), with a magnitude of 2.37. • γ Ursae Majoris, known as Phecda ("thigh"), with a magnitude of 2.44. • δ Ursae Majoris, or Megrez, meaning "root of the tail," referring to its location as the intersection of the body and tail of the bear (or the ladle and handle of the dipper). • ε Ursae Majoris, known as Alioth, a name which refers not to a bear but to a "black horse," the name corrupted from the original and mis-assigned to the similarly named Alcor, the naked-eye binary companion of Mizar.[8] Alioth is the brightest star of Ursa Major and the 33rd-brightest in the sky, with a magnitude of 1.76. It is also the brightest of the chemically peculiar Ap stars, magnetic stars whose chemical elements are either depleted or enhanced, and appear to change as the star rotates.[8] • ζ Ursae Majoris, Mizar, the second star in from the end of the handle of the Big Dipper, and the constellation's fourth-brightest star. Mizar, which means "girdle," forms a famous double star, with its optical companion Alcor (80 Ursae Majoris), the two of which were termed the "horse and rider" by the Arabs. The ability to resolve the two stars with the naked eye is often quoted as a test of eyesight, although even people with quite poor eyesight can see the two stars. • η Ursae Majoris, known as Alkaid, meaning the "end of the tail". With a magnitude of 1.85, Alkaid is the third-brightest star of Ursa Major. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa\_Major The earliest list of the Seven Rishis is given by Jaiminiya Brahmana 2.218–221: Agastya, Atri, Bhardwaja, Gautam, Jamadagni, Vashistha and Vishvamitra followed by Brihadaranyaka Upanisad 2.2.6 with a slightly different list: Atri, Bharadvaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Vashistha and Vishwamitra. The late Gopatha Brahmana 1.2.8 has Vashistha, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Gungu, Agastya and Kashyapa. Story of Parīkṣit A brilliant King of Candravaṃśa. He was the grandson of Arjuna and son of Abhimanyu. (For genealogy see under Abhimanyu). Birth. Parīkṣit was the son born to Abhimanyu of Uttarā. This was a still-born child and it was Śrī Kṛṣṇa who gave it life. There is a story in Mahābhārata about this: Uttarā, wife of Abhimanyu, was pregnant when the war between the Pāṇḍavas and Kauravas started at Kurukṣetra. Aśvatthāmā, son of Droṇa, entered the camp of the Pāṇḍavas at night and slew Dhṛṣṭadyumna. He then sent the most fierce Brahmaśirāstra (missile of Brahmaśira) to exterminate the Pāṇḍavas. To face it and oppose it Arjuna also sent an equally fierce Brahmaśirāstra. The sight of two such powerful weapons opposing each other made all the sages anxious and they led by Vyāsa entered the field and requested them to withdraw their missiles. It was in vain. The missile of Aśvatthāmā went and struck the womb of Uttarā. Once when the Pāṇḍavas after their exile were staying in the village of Upaplavya a brahmin had predicted to Uttarā that at the fag end of the life of the Pāṇḍavas Uttarā would bear a son who would be tested even while in her womb and that the child should be named Parīkṣit. (Parīkṣā = test).