Maps and nautical charts historically: two of a kind or different cartographic paradigms? (text) (original) (raw)
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In his acclaimed book Elements of Cartography, first published in 1969, the late American geographer Arthur Robinson stated that “maps are to be looked at while charts are to be worked on.” What Robinson intended to emphasize with this sentence is that maps and charts are constructed with different purposes in mind: while maps are basically a source of geographical information, which one can retrieve just by looking at them, charts were specifically designed to support the practice of navigation and facilitate graphical work. Although Robinson’s definition is remarkably synthetic and expressive, it doesn’t tell the whole story, namely about the profound differences between these two cartographic paradigms. How those differences contributed to shape the history of maps and charts will be the subject of my presentation, which will focus on three different periods: the Middle Ages, when the first nautical charts were produced in the Mediterranean; the age of the great discoveries, when the newly discovered lands were first shown to the amazed eyes of the European nations through nautical charts; and the time of the Gerard Mercator, when the great Flemish cartographer proposed his famous projection to mariners. I will show how the image of the world conveyed by nautical charts in each of these three periods could hardly be considered as truthful, as far as the shape and size of the lands were concerned. This was not because of the limitations of the surveying and charting methods of the time - although they had certainly a relevant influence - but owing to a critical difference regarding what should be understood by an accurate depiction of the Earth, in the eyes of geographers and navigators. In some instances these differences of opinion lead to conflict and resentment. In other occasions, they materialized into apparently unsolvable technical obstacles. Only today can we see through the mist caused by the very subtle technical questions that the protagonists of the past couldn’t interpret correctly, and fully understand the reason for all the conflicts and misunderstandings: the intrinsically different nature of maps and charts.
Early Modern Nautical Charts and Maps: Working Through Different Cartographic Paradigms
Journal of Early Modern History, 2019
Of all the technical and scientific developments that made possible the European maritime expansion, the nautical chart is perhaps the least studied and understood. This fact is very surprising as it was with the information contained in those charts, and later imported to geographical maps and atlases, that the newly discovered lands were first shown to the European nations. There was, however, a deep incompatibility between these two cartographic paradigms—the nautical charts and the geographical maps—which remained unsolved throughout the sixteenth century and beyond, despite the attempts to harmonize the technical principles of Ptolemy’s Geography with the advances of nautical cartography. An eloquent symptom of such incompatibility was the difference between what was understood as an accurate depiction of the Earth, in the eyes of cosmographers and geographers, and what was considered by the pilots as an accurate nautical chart. The misunderstandings around these issues during the early modern period and the unsuccessful attempts at reconciliation were, in great part, the cause for some polemics among cosmographers, cartographers and pilots, such as the conflict in the Casa de Contratación around the charts of Diego Gutiérrez, a fact not entirely understood by historians. At the core of the difficulty lies the circumstance that only in the present day has the true nature of the nautical chart, as a navigational tool, started to be clarified. How the differences between geographical maps and nautical charts contributed to shape the History of Cartography in various periods, and how they are related to conflicting scholarly objectives and practices, is the subject of this essay. We will show, using the results of cartometric analysis, that not only were those artifacts constructed using different principles and with different purposes, but that they belonged to incompatible cartographic paradigms, and we will argue for the relevance of this fact for the history of science.
What is a nautical chart, really? Uncovering the geometry of early modern nautical charts.
Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2018
During the sixteenth century and beyond, nautical charts were the single most important source of geographical information for the image of the world that was depicted in European maps and atlases. However, little was known until very recently about the geometry of these remarkable artefacts. Making use of results obtained with modern techniques of cartometric analysis and numerical modeling, we clarify the nature of the early modern nautical chart and show how its geometry is intimately connected with the contemporaneous navigational methods. Two major conclusions follow from our study: firstly, nautical charts can only be understood in full cognizance of the navigational techniques they were intended to support; and secondly, nautical charts were instruments for navigation, not attempts at representing the Earth.
The origin problem of nautical cartography: the importance of evidence and method
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CARTOGRAPHY, 2024
The origin of nautical or portolan charts poses the greatest challenge of the history of cartography. Claims that the ‘big’ questions have been answered and research can therefore focus on filling in the details are unfounded. Majority opinion still holds that portolan charts are medieval creations. Although there is a complete absence of historical evidence that supports a medieval origin, evidence that contradicts such an origin does exist. In the absence of historical records, quantitative (cartometric) analysis is a relatively novel technique that can reveal new facts about these charts. Cartometric analysis has shown that portolan charts are composites of accurate regional charts. These regional charts agree surprisingly well with a modern map on the Mercator projection. Both their correspondence with this projection and their accuracy are incompatible with a medieval origin. This has revealed a conundrum that is still able to raise the temperature of any debate on this fascinating subject. This is an Open Access article .
Using Empirical Map Projections for Modeling Early Nautical Charts
Advances in Cartography and GIScience, 2011
A numerical model using the concept of multidimensional scaling, generalized to distances and directions measured on the surface of the Earth, is presented and tested, with the objective of simulating the main geometric features of early nautical charts. Starting with a sample of points defined by their latitudes and longitudes, the process consists in rearranging their positions in a plane so that the differences between the initial (spherical) and final (planar) distances and directions between them are minimized. The geometry of the Cantino planisphere (1502) is simulated and the output is compared with the geographic grid implicit to the original chart, with satisfactory results. The model proved to be an effective and easy-to-use research tool and may be used, not only for simulating and assessing the various factors affecting the geometry of early nautical charts, but also for educational purposes e.g. illustrating the properties of map projections
The Mapping of Africa on the Nautical Charts of the Age of Discovery
Terrae Incognitae, 2021
The shape of Africa on Iberian nautical charts of the late-fifteenth and early-sixteenth century is surprisingly mature. The portrayal of the outline of Africa on the Cantino planisphere of 1502 is so good that it was not surpassed in the next two, possibly three centuries. The African coastline on the Cantino planisphere is a mosaic of accurate regional charts on the plate-carrée projection, each with its own scale and orientation. The same holds for its Iberian predecessors. The shape of the parts of Africa depicted on these regional charts was essentially correct on the oldest chart (c. 1471) and was copied to later charts. The projective properties of the regional charts are incompatible with the navigation and charting techniques used in that period. Therefore, serious doubt is cast on the established view that Portuguese pilots and cartographers were the original creators of the source charts.
GISing dead-reckoning; historic maritime maps in GIS.
W. Börner, S. Uhlirz & L. Dollhofer (eds.), Proceedings of the 13th Vienna Conference on Heritage and New Technology, 2009
The Dutch mapmakers of the 16th and 17th century were famous for their accurate and highly detailed maps. Several atlases were produced and the pride and joy of many a captain, whether Dutch, English, French, fighting or merchant navy. For modern eyes, these maps often seem warped and inaccurate; besides, in those times it still was impossible to accurately determine ones longitude, so how could these maps be accurate at all? But since these maps were actually used to navigate on, and (most of) the ships actually made it to their destination and back, the information on the maps should have been accurate enough. Using old navigational techniques and principles it is possible to place these maps, and the wealth of information depicted on them, in a modern GIS. That way these old basic-data not only provides us with an insight in the development of our rich maritime landscape over the centuries, but also gives an almost personal insight in the mind of the captains using them and the command structure of the fleets dominating the high seas.