Spread of Indus Script Rgveda, Meluhha words of metalwork, lapidarywork during the Bronze Age (original) (raw)

Mesopotamian EDI cuneiform texts from Ur distinguish between copper (urudu/eru) and tin=bronze (zabar/siparru). ED II/III texts from Fara (Limet 1960) mention metallic tin (AN.NA/annakum). Texts from Palace G at Ebla refer to the mixing of various ratios of 'washed' copper (a-gar(-gar)/abaru) and tin to produce bronze (Waetzoldt and Bachmann 1984; Archi 1993). The recipes are also found in the late 19th century BCE texts from Mari (Muhly, JD, 1985, ‘Sources of Tin and the Beginning of Bronze Metallurgy’ AJA 89, pp. 275-291, p.282). Typical copper-tin ratios are from 6:1 to 10:1. This monograph traces cognates of urudu/eru 'copper' and anakku 'tin' (Sumerian) in Meluhha and identifies these as substrate words of Sumerian which is a language isolate.. “Sumerian words with a pre-Sumerian origin are:professional names such as simug ‘blacksmith’ and tibira ‘copper smith’, ‘metal-manufacturer’ are not in origin Sumerian words. Agricultural terms, like engar ‘farmer’, apin ‘plow’ and absin ‘furrow’, are neither of Sumerian origin. Craftsman like nangar ‘carpenter’, agab ‘leather worker’ Some of the most ancient cities, like Kish, have names that are not Sumerian in origin. These words must have been loan words from a substrate language. The words show how far the division in labor had progressed even before the Sumerians arrived.” (http://www.wsu.edu:8080/\~dee/meso/meso.htm – No longer available) http://firstlegend.info/theoldones.html One religious term of Sumerian is sanga ‘priest’ which has roots in Indo-European *sāṅgaka ʻ relating to a company ʼ. [saṅgá -- ]S. sã̄go m. ʻ companionship, caravan ʼ.(CDIAL 13328) संघ saṅgha m S An assembly, a multitude; a collection, an assemblage; a number (of things animate or inanimate, but esp. of living beings) gathered together. Sāṅguā ସାଙ୍ଗୁଆ— Sāṅguā (ସାଙ୍ଗେ[ଙ୍ଗୋ]ଈ—ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ) [synonym(s): সঙ্গপ্রিয় संगचाहनेवाला সঙ্গী, সহচর सङ्गी] ଦେ. ବିଣ. (ପୁଂ)— ୟେଉଁ ବ୍ୟକ୍ତି ସଙ୍ଗୀମାନଙ୍କ ସମାଜରେ ଚଳିବାକୁ ସୁଖ ପାଏ; ସମାଜିକ—Fond of company; sociable; social. ବି— 1। ସଙ୍ଗୀ; ସହଚର—1. Companion; mate. 2। ସାଥୁଆ; ୟେଉଁ ୟାତ୍ରୀ—ଗୁମାସ୍ତା ଅନ୍ୟ ପଣ୍ଡାଙ୍କ ୟାତ୍ରୀମାନଙ୍କ ସଙ୍ଗ ଧରି ବହୁ ଦୂରରୁ ତୀର୍ଥକୁ ଆସିଥାଆନ୍ତି—2. A canvassing agent accompanying the pilgrims of some other Paṇḍā than his (agent's) employer to a shrine from a long distance. 3। ୟେଉଁ ଲୋକମାନେ ସାଙ୍ଗି ବାଉଁଶ ଦ୍ବାରା ଭାର କାନ୍ଧେଇ କରି ବୁହାନ୍ତି—3. Persons who carry loads by means of Sāṅgi pole.(Oriya) See: Sumerian accounting tablets signify sanga Kushim read rebus in Meluhha substrate saṅg, 'caravan' kusi 'money-lender' https://tinyurl.com/y4kevzpl The administrative official who signs the mathematical tablets of Sumer is SANGA Kushim or SANGA of Kushim. I suggest that this expression is rooted in Meluhha expressions related to caravan or body of pilgrims led by a temple official and money-lending (or, credit operations) to support traders. I suggest that both words Sanga and Kushim of Akkadian (Sumer) are substrate words which have etyma in Ancient Indian dialects. sã̄go signifies a caravan; kusi signifies a money-lender. Thus, SANGA Kushim who signs some administrative accounting tablets may refer to a money-lender who is a temple official or a leader of a caravan of merchants. Dudu plaque ca. 2400 BCE signifies sanga of Ningirsu. sanga 'priest' is a loanword in Sumerian/Akkadian. The presence of such a sanga may also explain Gudea as an Assur, in the tradition of ancient metalworkers speaking Proto-Prakritam of Indian sprachbund. saṅgu m. ʻ body of pilgrims ʼ (whence sã̄go m. ʻ caravan ʼ), L. P. saṅg m. (CDIAL 12854). Excerpt from: Yuval Noah Harari, 2011, Sapiens, A brief history of humankind, Vintage: Source: RJ Forbes, 1950, Metallurgy in Antiquity: a notebook for archaeologists and technologists, Brill Archive, p. 356) For bronze (ZABAR written ud-ka-bar, the Akkadian siparru) a complex sign is used. It is astonishing to remark that later in Assyrian times the word siparru comes to be used for ‘copper’ while the old word eru (Sumerian URUDU) then denotes bronze. We cannot see the reason, but it certainly confuses our translation of later texts, but in the earlier texts there seems no reason not to adhere to the strict separation of the two words…(Sumerians) were well aware that bronze was an alloy, even if they did not know tin and bronze is called ‘what was made by the smith as an alloy’ by the time of Sargon I. We can not understand LUTZ’ reason for stating that ZABAR originally meant shining ore and then copper, for which URUDU was used later and ZABAR was transferred to the alloys of copper and lead. De Genouillac mentions that at Telloh coper is as common as at Susa or Uruk and as the analyses show that the coper contained some iron and tin he supposed that mixed pyrites were already worked…The following Djemdet Nasr period…Copper metallurgy produces copper picks, double-axes, bowls, rings, tubes, mirrors, fishhooks, forks and socketed axes. Intricate casting of copper in animal form are attempted. This movement more or less culminates in Early Dynastic times. Then bronze seems to have come in general use as copper was already for some time. Early objects from Ur are as pure as native copper, but Desch considers them manufactured from pure malachite. The melting and refining of copper must have been carried out with skill…Not only is open mould casting known, but also closed moulds casting and the cire perdue process which was used for many of the elaborate copper reliefs of Ur. It often causes astonishment that these early metallurgists so freely cast copper which is still considered at present a difficult job especially in closed moulds as the molten copper is so viscous that it does not flow readily into all the ends of the moulds and often sticks to it on cooling. However, natural impurities of early copper often made casting must easier than would seem at first sight. Early Dynastic finds at Tell asmar include statuettes of 99% pure copper cast by the cire perddue process and welded most professionally…Copper was already used in payments in the forms of bars, rings and bricks. Copper helmets were worn by the Sumerian army…A special god of the copper-smiths as the emanation of Ea is mentioned and though the text is late (Bab.Misz., XII,4), the legend is probably very old. The old fire-god Girru is mentioned as ‘the refiner of gold and silver the mixer of copper and siparru’. A special god of copper, Nindara, who shone like it, came out of the earth where metal is found ‘covered with solid copper like a skin’. In the period of the Sumerian Renaissance of the Ur III Dynasty (2300-2200 BCE) the ensi Gudea imports copper from ka-gal-ad, the mountain of Kimash (in the Zagros region), where it was dug from the mountain side (ba-al) and the ore was concentrated by sieving (imi-bi mu-na-ab-pad). After smelting the cakes of copper were transported in baskets (ushub). Other texts of his reign mention urudu-hu-lah-ha, that is copper refined by fire which serves to make bronze by alloying it with NAGGA (Akkadian. Anaku), a work of the smelter or SIMUG. It is possible that tin was already known and that the Sumerians mistook it for lead (anaku), as the Romans much later often mistook antimony for lead. In other texts (RTC, 19 and 100) NAGGA-ZABAR (tin-bronze?) is mentioned. Three specimen of Ur III copper contained 0.78% of lead, 1.5% of iron and traces of arsenic, which experts considered to have been smelted from pyrites though the smelting was carried out quickly and the copper had not long remained in the furnace. This is of course most important and should be confirmed by further analyses…smelting of galena…invented in the early half of the third millennium BCE. Connections between Anatolia, where this art was developed, and Mesopotamia are particularly tight in this period, when the Cappadocian letters testify that black copper and refined copper were exported from the inland of Asia Minor to Mesopotamia… Texts from Umma belonging to this period throw some light on the organization of metallurgy in these Sumerian cities. The metal is delivered to a central storehouse (AZAG AN), the purpose of which is defined in the texts by the addition ‘where is kept….’Here the copper-smiths get their orders and their material for which a receipt is written and kept. Here also the city’s imports are stored. These texts range from the 34th year of Dungi to the ninth of Bursin, and comprise amongst others a receipt for 1 talent of imported copper, a delivery to the smith Ur-ningin-gar, a receipt for 0.6 talent of forged copper (URUDU-KIN) and a receipt of a present of 26.5 minae of copper for the ensi. From the latter text it would seem that quantities of 10 Kgrs of copper are still worth mentioning and this warns us again not to overrate the copper production of these early times…copper served as a medium of exchange, often in bar form and weights of metal in animal form are common too. The texts of Mari (about 2000 BCE) mention the construction of a war chariot for the king, for which no less than 18 minae of crude copper were used. 27,.8 minae of copper were used for the ‘statue of the king that is to be sent to Aleppo’, this copper belonged to Dagan of Terqa. Four passages in these texts refer to eru misu-ala-shu-u, that is refined Cyprian copper used in the palace refineries. These imports of refined Cyprian copper become very common in the fifteenth century, exports of copper and bronze to Syria are common in Mesopotamian texts since the sixteenth century. .The importance of copper trade is also shown by the records of a Babylonian banking-firm, which deals in gold, silver, copper, bronze and lead, but not yet in iron (1395-1242 BCE)(CAH, I,566).(ibid., pp.355-360)..