The Practice of Biblical Lament as a Means toward Facilitating Authenticity and Psychological Well-Being (original) (raw)

The practice of biblical lament as a means towards facilitating authenticity and psychological well-being

This article is the pre-peer-review version of that which was published in Pastoral Psychology in 2020.

Citation: Dickie, June F. “The practice of biblical lament as a means towards facilitating authenticity and psychological well-being.” Pastoral Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-020-00928-z

Abstract

Biblical lament provides a vital way of maintaining a healthy relationship with God when one’s life experience does not match up with one’s beliefs. Not to lament in such a situation is to deny authenticity. And as the psychological theories of authenticity indicate, this leads to a person having reduced self-esteem and a lower sense of personal well-being.

In this study, women (and a few men) from a poor community in Cape Town, South Africa were invited to study some psalms of lament, and then to compose their own laments. A validated measure of authenticity (the Authenticity Index) was administered to them before and after the lament-exercise, as well as Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale and two measures of personal well-being (the Affect Balance scale and the Satisfaction with Life scale). It became apparent that the opportunity to express themselves using the form of biblical lament led to a greater sense of authenticity for participants. Their responses on the other scales also indicated that they found the opportunity to lament led to an enhanced sense of self-esteem and well-being. This suggests that those committed to facilitating psychological healing for those who have suffered trauma will do well to provide space for pain-bearers to lament following the biblical pattern.

1. Introduction

Scott Ellington identifies two truths which dominate in the life of a God-follower: the truth of experience and the truth of belief. When these two truths are out of synchronization, a means is required to hold them in creative tension. This is the role of lament. If we dismiss our beliefs when they fail to tally with experience, we are left with nothing bigger than our own experience. But if we hold rigidly to belief statements which fail to be realized in experience, we deny reality and learn to live a lie, settling for diminished authenticity and a reduced sense of well-being. However, lament following the biblical pattern risks to confront God with the pain and confusion being experienced. As a result, both the person’s perception of the experience and his/her beliefs are likely to change. Lament can shake up rigid beliefs to facilitate a relationship with God that is vibrant and open to change, and which will become deeper and stronger.

In this study, the question is: Can an understanding and practice of biblical lament help those experiencing difficulties (perceived as being “spiritual”) to be more authentic and to experience greater self-esteem and a sense of well-being? Attention is first given to how various scholars define “authenticity”. This includes the notions of self-esteem and a sense

of well-being. Psychological instruments are next described, which will give quantitative measures of these various attributes (authenticity, self-esteem, and well-being) and so provide an objective indicator of the value of biblical lament. The empirical study is then discussed, first situating the participants in their context and giving a basic understanding of their theological position. Thereafter, the methodology is described as well as the results achieved.

2. What is “authenticity”?

Different personality theories view authenticity in different ways. Those who maintain that personality is consistent (e.g., McRae and John 1992) believe that to be true to oneself is to behave in a way consistent with one’s specific traits. This view neglects important socialcontextual influences (Pervin 1994). A more dynamic view of the person considers that people do not always act in accord with their “true self” but at times follow their “false or alienated self” (Ryan and Deci 2004). Authenticity arises when one’s “true self” can operate “unobstructed” (Goldman and Kernis 2002), not influenced by others. Such behaviour is selfdetermined (Deci and Ryan 1991), the self-concept feels self-endorsed (Ryan et al 2005, 444), and consequently the person has a sense of autonomy (Ryan 1993).

Buendgens-Kosten (2013,273,276)(2013,273,276) links ‘authentic’ activities with “realness”, i.e. identifying the ‘real’ behind the ‘staged’. An instrument to measure “authenticity” is the Authenticity Index, which is used in the empirical study. It includes three measures: authentic living, accepting external influence, and self-alienation. Although the Authenticity Index is useful to a degree, it does not tap into the notion of spiritual authenticity, which is more concerned with beliefs than behaviour. Chickering (2006,4)(2006,4) begins to think along these lines when he defines authenticity as: “What I believe, what I say, and what I do are consistent.” Here the element of belief enters into the equation.

But what is still missing (for my understanding of spiritual authenticity) is the way a person evaluates God’s action in his/her life. I define spiritual authenticity as resulting when a person holds his/her beliefs about God in tension with his/her experience of God’s action. A failure to do so has similar effects to those resulting from psychological inauthenticity: a sense of dissonance, reduced self-esteem, and less satisfaction with life. Thus, although the kind of authenticity being measured by the Authenticity Index is not restricted to “spiritual authenticity”, the scores on the instruments should capture any positive change in the latter.

3. Link between authenticity and psychological well-being

Many practising counsellors and researchers consider that authenticity is the fundamental aspect of well-being and positive self-esteem (e.g., Sheldon and Kasser 1995; Goldman and Kernis 2002; Wood et al 2008, 396). 1{ }^{1} Self-determination theorists (e.g., Ryan and Deci 2004)

[1]

1. 1{ }^{1} However, Baumeister (2005,36)(2005,36) claims that self-esteem is concerned with how people evaluate themselves and does not imply anything about “reality”. But he does acknowledge that people with high self-esteem are more likely than others to act on their beliefs. ↩︎

also assert that because authentic behaviour is self-endorsed and personally meaningful, it enhances the person’s sense of well-being. Conversely, inauthenticity is considered to lead to psychopathology, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (Joseph and Linley 2005). Inauthentic actions are often driven by external regulations, and so lead to internal conflict and lower well-being (Ryan et al 2005, 432).

An interesting relationship between authenticity and stressful events has also been shown. Ryan et al (2005,443−444)(2005,443-444) claim that individuals reporting greater authenticity tend to experience fewer negative life-events and consequently less stress. In terms of “spiritual authenticity” and its link with the practice of biblical lament, this makes sense. One of the major positive impacts of the practice of biblical lament 2{ }^{2} is the recognition that difficulties, failures, and “unknowns” are part of the normal Christian life, not “crises” (which call forth a dramatic response). In this way, an inherent authenticity (resulting from the practice of lament) enables one to weather storms with less output of energy, and life becomes more emotionally-moderated, and consequently less stressful.

Conversely, increased authenticity has also been shown to sometimes arise in people who have undergone trauma (Wood et al 2008, 397) or experienced negative life-events and conflicted feelings (Goldman and Kernis 2002). However, it could be that authenticity only arises following trauma if there are unconditionally-accepting supportive relationships (Joseph and Linley 2005). This is in line with the “stages of recovery” advocated by psychotherapist, Judith Herman (1985:155,176)(1985: 155,176). She claims that the final stage is restored social connection with the community: being accepted by empathic others is necessary for full healing. I also found that the presence of a caring community was an important component of the healing effect of lament. In a recent study in South Africa, 3{ }^{3} refugees within a church community were given the opportunity to share their communal lamentprayer in the midst of a worship service. The fact that others heard their pain, received it, and stood with them in prayer greatly facilitated the positive outcome of their negative experience.

4. Psychological measures of authenticity, self-esteem, and well-being

The empirical study made use of four psychological instruments. First, “authenticity” was measured using the Authenticity Index (Wood et al 2008, 388). Self-esteem was measured using Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965). “Well-being” was measured using two scales, 4{ }^{4} viz. the Satisfaction with Life Scale (which measures the cognitive component of “wellbeing”) and the Affect Balance scale (which measures the emotional component of “wellbeing”). Details of these psychological instruments are given in Appendices 1-4.

[1]

1. 2{ }^{2} The practice of biblical lament can bring healing in four areas: for the individual sufferer, for the community, for a more realistic understanding of the Christian life, and for a deeper understanding of the character of God (Author. The importance of Lament in Pastoral Ministry. Under review).
   3{ }^{3} Author. 'Communal Lament in a South African Church Community." In process.
   4 “Subjective well-being” is conceptualized as consisting of an emotional component and a cognitive component (Diener 1984). ↩︎

5. Empirical study: the impact of lament on one’s sense of authenticity, self-esteem and well-being

5.1 Sample and theological context

Two groups participated in the study, 5{ }^{5} with participants coming from Capricorn township in Cape Town, South Africa. The first group consisted of 6-8 young women (in their early 20s or 30s) who meet weekly as a support-group, Sisterhood. 6{ }^{6} The second group comprised members of a weekly Bible-study in the same community. Most of the second group are regular church-goers, and usually include three men and nine women, most of them above 40 years.

In order to understand well the participants’ responses in the study, some background to the community is helpful. Capricorn is adjacent to the Cape Flats area in Cape Town, a place which has been described as a “wasteland” (Bowers Du Toit 2014, 1), characterised by overcrowding and poor housing conditions, high unemployment, broken and dysfunctional family settings, chemical substance abuse and systemic violence (Dames 2008, 89). As a result of apartheid policies, people were forcibly removed and uprooted from homes and established communities where they had been living for generations, and put to live in “soul-less townships” (MacMaster 2009, 288). Most people living in the Cape Flats are socalled “Coloured”, and for many of them “identity” is a major source of confusion (Aziz 2017, 1-2). Many Coloureds consider themselves as “not being white enough nor black enough” (Adhikari 2009, xv-xvi), and their experience is generally characterised by rejection, systemic and structural violence and abject poverty (Bray et al 2012, 99). Aziz (2017,1)(2017,1) believes that “It is out of dire hopelessness that a meaningful relationship with God can be experienced”, and the Cape Flats is thus “a fertile space for an intervention of religiosity”.

In terms of theology, Cone (1997,6)(1997,6) argues that it must “arise out of an oppressed community as they seek to understand their place in the history of salvation”. Portal (2019, 209-210) asserts the need for a “local theology” suited to the needs of the community. Hendricks (1996,172)(1996,172) also maintains that the problems experienced by the Coloured community arise from the Gospel not being enculturated within their community. Portal, from his experience of living in the Cape Flats, contends that such a local theology would have to address addiction and recovery, and include notions of fellowship and accountability with other believers. In such a place, “in which God is not absent, the seed of a new spirituality can germinate” (Gutierrez 1984, 19). Indeed, in such harsh circumstances, faith communities have helped people find solace in the fact that “God is not sleeping” but is a God of justice and righteousness. Many of the people have a deep faith in God and refuse to accept the fatality of their situation (MacMaster 2009, 293, 296).

[1]

1. 5{ }^{5} Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study. Ethical clearance from the University of KwaZulu-Natal has the protocol reference number HSS/1985/016PD.
   6{ }^{6} Sisterhood was started by a young American volunteer, in response to the need for a “positive space” for young women to meet. Sisterhood usually meet weekly for two hours of art activities along with coffee and conversation. I had previously spent a few weeks with the group, doing a “performance Bible study” and they were happy for me to come again. ↩︎

Aziz (2017,3)(2017,3) claims that “Religion is important in most African communities and is no different on the Cape Flats.” It serves to “generate future hope, stability and resilience” (Ciarrochi and Heaven 2012, 677-679). Many in the townships have grown up with the notion of an omnipotent God who should be respected and feared, and to whom one should not complain. Such a simplistic representation of God reinforces inequities and oppression. This study seeks to help them understand more of the character of God and so be able to be more transparent. I would contend that such spiritual authenticity is an essential element for faith to grow and for resilience to emerge among those living in the Cape Flats. 7{ }^{7}

5.2 Methodology

The participants were invited to a lament workshop held on two Thursday mornings, a month apart. We began with four short questionnaires (psychological scales) which they seemed to answer with little difficulty. Then together we made a brief study of two lament psalms, Ps 3 and Ps 13, using both English (CEV) and Afrikaans translations. Participants preferred the English, saying that the Afrikaans (a new translation recently completed) had words that were “too long and difficult”. 8{ }^{8} From these two lament psalms, we discussed the kind of language included in biblical laments, noting that they usually include complaints (sometimes expressed as rhetorical questions), requests (including a request for justice to be executed against those who had caused suffering to the lamenter), affirmations of faith, and occasionally a promise or vow (if the request is answered). 9{ }^{9}

Some of the participants were surprised that the Bible includes poems which show such strong emotions, including anger, confusion, and pain. They were encouraged to compose their own laments, based on responses to the following questions: What am I not happy about in my life? (Or “What would I like to complain to God about?”) What would I like to ask God to do in my life? Is there anyone who has caused me pain who I want God to “sort out”? What do I know about God that might help me believe God will do something? Their personal laments were then offered to God in a short time of prayer.

A month later, the participants studied another lament. This time, instead of composing their own lament, they made a careful reading together of Ps 55.1055 .{ }^{10} They were encouraged to underline verses that spoke to them in their situation. Thereafter, they participated as a group in a communal lament, based on the Lord’s Prayer. 11{ }^{11} This was to give them further opportunity to be open and honest before God about difficulties in their lives and community. For most of the participants in this group, the notion of being able to complain to God without risking God’s anger was new to them. At the end of the second workshop, the participants completed the same four questionnaires again, to indicate if there had been any change in their views of themselves. The same two “lament workshops” were

[1]

1. 7{ }^{7} A major problem holding people back is shame (Portal 2019, 169).
   8{ }^{8} Afrikaans is the mother-tongue of most Cape Coloureds, but the dialect differs significantly from “standard Afrikaans” used in the new Bible translation.
   9{ }^{9} See Westermann 1981, 266-273; Ferris 1992, 152.
   10{ }^{10} Once again both English (CEV) and Afrikaans translations were made available to participants, but the former were preferred, as the Afrikaans translation is “posh”, not the dialect that they speak.
   11{ }^{11} See Dickie 2019. ↩︎

conducted with the second group, with the two sessions also a month apart. They also completed the questionnaires at the beginning and end of the month period.

5.3 Samples of lament compositions and discussion of results

Four examples follow of laments composed by women from the Sisterhood group, based on Psalms 3 and 13. The first example was written by a 38 -year-old woman who was abandoned at age 12, stays in a “drug house” with her 22-year-old amputee partner, and who lives by prostitution. Her prayer shows a transparent honesty and a desire for change.

E.g.1) N’s prayer

Dear Lord,
The way I live my life I’m not happy. The way people treat me hurts me.
Lord, why must I always get hurt?
Sometimes I’m scared of them. But then you come around and tell me not to be afraid.
Lord, make me strong. Amen.
The prayer above shows that N was no stranger to lament, and was able to be honest before God about her emotions and hurts. She scored relatively high on “authenticity”, both before and after the lament workshops. However, her scores for “external influence” and “selfalienation” significantly dropped over the period of discussing lament. There was also a significant improvement in her emotive sense of well-being, identifying with two additional positive statements and one less negative statement (when evaluating her situation). Thus, even over the short period of the lament workshops, some positive change was noted.

E.g.2) M’s prayer

Lord, please save me from my enemies.
I know that you are the Alpha and the Omega.
You are worthy to be praised, and you can do anything, God, everything, Lord.
Without you there is nothing in me.
M′M^{\prime} s short prayer includes a request (line 1), two affirmations of faith (lines 2 and 3) and a veiled complaint or confession (line 4). However there was a big increase in her “authenticity score” over the following month as we studied two further laments.

E.g.3) Leader C’s prayer

How long will I continue to struggle with insecurities and bad attitude?
How long will I behave as if I don’t know you?
How long will I forget who I am in in you, and act in selfish ways?

Lord, please listen to me and answer my prayers.
Keep my children.
Bless my marriage.
Please cleanse to the bottom of my heart.
Help me with secure humility and knowing who I am in you.
Please save those who have harmed us.

You love me and don’t give up on me, God.
You finish what you started.
You work all things for good. I choose to trust you.

Although this person has had significant exposure to biblical teaching, she had not been consciously aware of the value and acceptability of lament. Her scores show a moderate increase in authenticity, and a moderate decrease in external influence and self-alienation. The same changes were apparent in the scores of Leader S, whose poem follows:
E.g.4) Leader S’s prayer

A never-ending fog of fatigue . . .
When will I awake from this slumber?
When will that zeal return?
When will harmony and balance grace my life?
I beg you to bestow net 'n bietjie [just a little] of your infinite grace and wisdom upon me.
Send volts of your power, reviving those dead and decaying areas of my life.
Change minds, Lord. Bring support, my God.
You are the Prince of Peace.
You are strength when I am weak.

The following compositions are from Group 2 (Bible-study group):
E.g.5) B’s prayer

Holy Lord, it is difficult for me to come to thee when I suffer, when I think you are not listening.
But I know goodness and mercy will follow me, with your grace.
This person scored the maximum for “authenticity”, the lowest for “external influence”, very high scores on both the cognitive and emotive elements of “Wellness of being”, and her score for self-esteem was the highest of the group (apart from that of the two leaders). However, she scored very high for “self-alienation”, suggesting that although she is honest with herself and her feelings, there is a sense of being torn in two directions. However, after the lament exercises, her score for self-alienation dropped significantly (from 20 to 13).
E.g.6) D’s prayer

Lord, I’m so sick and tired of the injustice of this country! Corrupt government! Why are you not doing something about it?
People are suffering; the rich are richer, in crushing, stepping, prospering, and the poor are getting poorer.
Lord, please step in and remove the corruption so that this country will be a better place. Shatter the breakdown.
But, Lord, you are great, and above all injustice, a God of faithfulness.

You know my thoughts. And Lord, show me the way to walk with you to fight the injustice.

D shows an honesty in his complaints, but also an attitude of trust. The two prayers below are similarly honest, but show a grappling with life’s realities.

E.g.7) A1’s prayer (excerpt)

I want to pray, God, that I trust you with all my life, because [it is a] hard life. But sometimes I get cross for things. What is wrong that people are shouting at me?

E.g.8) A2’s prayer

Lord God, I ask you to save my husband, so that we might serve you together.
When will you open the door for me? I want to have work.
You must show my enemies you are alive. I forgive them.
I know you love me. I trust you.

5.4 Quantitative measures of authenticity, self-esteem, and well-being

The tables below show the scores on the Authenticity Index for Group 1 (Sisterhood). 12{ }^{12} The maximum score for each scale is 28 . “Nc” next to the score indicates that responses for that dimension were “not consistent”.

The scores show that there was no significant change in “authentic living” for the two leaders ( S and C ) or for N . T did not score “before” but did participate in the lament workshops and showed a very high 28 for “authentic living”. V did not participate in the second workshop. Thus the data is very limited, but does indicate movement in a positive direction for “authentic living” for one of the participants and possibly for another. However, all of the participants in Group 1 showed a significant decrease in “accepting external influences”. M and N also both showed a decrease in a sense of “self-alienation” and T had a low 4. Qualitatively, one also noticed a change in M’s ability to focus and concentrate, N’s commitment and leadership, and T’s improved focus and reliability.

The results for Group 2 (Bible-study group) are shown below:

[1]

1. 12{ }^{12} The scores for one person (E) in Group 1 were discounted as she suffers from “alcohol foetal syndrome” and consequently her responses were inconsistent and unreliable. ↩︎

Most of the respondents in the Bible-study group scored very high on “authentic living”, even before the lament exercises. Most of these participants are strongly rooted in their Christian faith, and had already worked through many difficulties in their lives by crying out to God. Indeed, as other researchers have noted, 13{ }^{13} those living in difficult circumstances have less reluctance with lamenting to God. Some of the respondents (L1, N, R1) showed less “acceptance of external influence” after the workshops. However, their scores with respect to “self-alienation” were not clearly moving in any direction.

It was found that the administration of such questionnaires was both time-consuming and “foreign” (and therefore stress-inducing) for quite a number of the respondents. Oral translation into Afrikaans was given to those who struggled with understanding the English questionnaires, but it was clearly not an easy process for some of the respondents. Thus the Self-esteem index and Satisfaction with Life indices were not administered “after” the workshop to Group 2 (most of whom were older and less habituated to questionnaires than those in Group 1). The results of Group 1 for these two other questionnaires are given below, with the “after” scores shaded.

Self-esteem index (with a maximum score of 30 )

There was a significant increase in self-esteem (from a score of 16 to 25 , apparent even without a measure!) in M, but no significant change in N, S, or C. T did not have a “before” score, but she showed high self-esteem, also quite apparent from the recent change in her life-style and her recognition of the improvement in her life as a result. 14{ }^{14}

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1. 13{ }^{13} E.g. Ellington 2008, 11.
   14 T{ }^{14} \mathrm{~T} (and her husband) had given up drugs some months earlier when she fell pregnant. She gave birth to a healthy baby, and continued to maintain her drug-free life-style. ↩︎

The last instrument administered to Group 1 was the “Satisfaction with Life Index”. This comprises both a cognitive and an emotive measure. The cognitive element purports to measure “life satisfaction” through the use of five statements, whereas the Emotive balance scale evaluates one’s view of one’s life through five positive and five negative statements. Clearly these are very basic measures, but they were considered easy enough for the respondents to understand. The results for Group 1 are shown below.

Satisfaction with life index

The scores above show significant increases in the cognitive aspect of “Satisfaction with Life” for nearly all the township respondents (M going from 17 to 32, and N from 6 to 11). On the other hand, the scores of the two leaders (who live in comfortable circumstances) did not change. With respect to the emotive components, scores improved for the two township women who took both “before” and “after” measures. (M improved from -1 to +4 , and N from -4 to -1.) The emotive score for S (the one leader) showed deterioration, but she was clearly very tired on the day of taking the second test. Her lament prayer (see e.g. 4 earlier) began with the line: “A never-ending fog of fatigue. . .”

6. Conclusion

Anecdotal evidence shows that the study of lament psalms, and realizing that God wants us to be honest and authentic, did change attitudes in this group. The one woman mentioned that “We need people coming into the township and giving this kind of teaching because we don’t hear it in the local churches.” The leader of the Bible-study group also noted a significant change in the kind of sharing coming from members: previously they used to pray in what they assumed to be “prayer-voices” (high-pitched and very fast) and were always sharing “visions and dreams”. It seemed they had grown up with an understanding that “religion” and “every day experience” are two distinct categories of life, requiring different “persona” and experiences of reality. Their failure to reconcile life experiences with their religious belief system caused them to respond with a hyper-spirituality, one which kept the hardness of life apart from their beliefs. However, the study of lament seemed to help them understand that one can be oneself and speak to God as one would to a friend, sharing openly and honestly what one is experiencing.

With reference to the psychological instruments, the participants’ scores for “accepting external influence” and “self-alienation” generally dropped over the period of discussing lament. Most also showed improvement in both their cognitive and emotive sense of wellbeing. There also seemed to be a correlation between scores for “self-esteem” and “emotive well-being” with “authenticity”. For example, N scored very low on self-esteem and the emotive balance scale, and also showed a low score for authenticity. In contrast, M showed an improvement in her authenticity score following the workshops, and also very high (positive) scores for both the cognitive and emotive aspects of “satisfaction with life”.

However, one needs to remember that the sample for this study is very small, the respondents are unfamiliar with psychological instruments, and some of the respondents in Group 1 (the Sisterhood group) could well have been high on drugs on either or both of the testing days. Thus one cannot give strong credence to the quantitative scores. However, the results generally do indicate that participation in the lament workshops had a positive effect on most of the township respondents.

There are many factors acting upon those living in the poverty and violence of the townships. Abuse of various kinds (psychological, physical, social, and other) disrupt one’s sense of self-esteem and identity. 15{ }^{15} The ongoing level of fear and anxiety, 16{ }^{16} and guilt and shame 17{ }^{17} that many in the townships live with on a daily basis means that it is difficult to isolate one cause and one response, and conclude that X is helping alleviate Y .

Nonetheless, lament research (as represented in this study) indicates that encouraging people to bring their pain and negative emotions to God can help them to be more honest about spiritual matters. Although such “spiritual authenticity” may not eliminate their suffering, it can be “a critical component in moderating their suffering” (Pender 2000, 140). Some of the people in the empirical study had denied aspects of their current suffering experience by taking on a super-spirituality. By denying reality, they had tried to cope. However, when they recognized that they could, and should, bring their pain to God (as well as the accompanying emotions of anger, fear, or frustration), they were set free to hold their difficult life-experiences in tension with their beliefs about an omnipotent, loving God.

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1. 15{ }^{15} E.g. Kilpatrick et al 1985. The more a person perceives his suffering as a natural part of life, the lower his selfesteem (Soelle 1975, 12).
   16{ }^{16} For example, see Mannarino and Cohen 1986.
   17{ }^{17} Burgess and Holmstrom 1979. ↩︎

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Appendix 1: Authenticity Index

1. “I think it is better to be yourself, than to be popular.”
2. “I don’t know how I really feel inside.”
3. “I am strongly influenced by the opinions of others.”
4. “I usually do what other people tell me to do.”
5. “I always feel I need to do what others expect me to do.”
6. “Other people influence me greatly.”
7. “I feel as if I don’t know myself very well.”
8. “I always stand by what I believe in.”
9. “I am true to myself in most situations.”
10. “I feel out of touch with the ‘real me.’”
11. “I live in accordance with my values and beliefs.”
12. “I feel alienated from myself.”

In terms of scoring, all items are presented on a scale from 1 (does not describe me at all) to 7 (describes me very well). Items 1, 8, 9, and 11 relate to “Authentic Living”; items 3, 4, 5, and 6 to “Accepting External Influence”; and items 2, 7, 10, and 12 to “Self-Alienation”. For each of these components, a person’s scores are tallied. A high score for “Authentic Living” would be expected to correlate with a low score for “Accepting External Influence” and a low score for “Self-Alienation” (in line with self-Determination theory). Thus a measure of validity and reliability is achieved by having 3 related measures for each participant.

Appendix 2 Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale 18{ }^{18}

[1]

1. 18{ }^{18} https://www.wwnorton.com/college/psych/psychscl/media/rosenberg.htm ↩︎

This is one of the most widely used measures of self-esteem. The 10-item scale assesses global self-esteem, with five items are oriented in a positive direction, and five in a negative direction.

Scores are calculated as follows:
Items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7: Strongly agree = 3, Agree = 2, Disagree =1, Strongly disagree = 0.
Items 3, 5, 8, 9, and 10: Strongly agree = 0, Agree = 1, Disagree =2, Strongly disagree = 3.
(A total score between 15 and 25 is considered “normal” whereas one below 15 suggests low self-esteem.)

Appendix 3: Satisfaction with Life scale 19{ }^{19}

The cognitive component of subjective well-being is also referred to as “life satisfaction” (Andrews and Withey 1976). It can be measured by The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Participants rate their agreement with five statements regarding how satisfied they are with their life on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). According to Pavot et al

[1]

1. 19{ }^{19} Diener et al 1985. ↩︎

(1991), 20{ }^{20} “The SWLS is shown to be a valid and reliable measure of life satisfaction, suited for use with a wide range of age groups and applications.”

The five statements follow:

1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2. The conditions of my life are excellent.
3. I am satisfied with my life.
4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

Scores from each item are totalled. A score of 31-35 would indicate “Extremely satisfied”, 26-30 “Satisfied”, 21-25 “Slightly satisfied”, 20 “Neutral”, 15-19 “Slightly dissatisfied”, 10-14 “Dissatisfied”, and 5-9 “Extremely dissatisfied”.

Appendix 4: Affect Balance Scale (Bradburn Scale of Psychologic Wellbeing)

The scale has five positive affect statements and five negative affect statements. Participants are asked to respond (“yes” or “no”) if, in the past few weeks, they have felt certain emotions. The total number of “No” responses is subtracted from the total number of “Yes” responses to create an affect difference score. An evaluation of this scale 21{ }^{21} points out weaknesses, but concludes that it does provide an “indicator of emotional wellbeing in general population surveys” and suggests that it “continue to be used until a more adequate set of questions can be developed”. The ten questions are as follows:

Positive affect questions:

During the past few weeks did you feel . . .

1. particularly excited or interested in something?
2. proud because someone complimented you on something you had done?
3. pleased about having accomplished something?
4. on top of the world?
5. that things were going your way?

Negative affect questions:

During the past few weeks did you feel . . .
6) so restless that you couldn’t sit long in a chair?
7) very lonely or remote from other people?

[1]

1. 20{ }^{20} Pavot et al 1991.
   21{ }^{21} McDowell and Praught 1982, 949-958. ↩︎