Grand Vizierial Reception Ceremonies of European Ambassadors in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century (original) (raw)
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Hitherto, no historian has attempted a comprehensive approach to the aims, instruments and practices of Ottoman diplomacy, nor have historians analysed the major claims and evolution of the latter over the longue durée. This article does take a long view, beginning in the 1290s and continuing to the end of territorial expansion, roughly at the turn of the seventeenth century. I propose an exegetic framework to interpret the Ottoman understanding of diplomatic practices, which evolved significantly over the three centuries studied. While changes in the balance of inter-empire power relations were surely a cause, one needs to take account of internal factors as well. As Ottoman sultans and their servitors redefined the political identity of their realm, they redesigned diplomatic practices in conformity with changing priorities.
Representation and Self-Consciousness in 16th Century Habsburg Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire
Akten des internationalen Kongresses zum 150-jährigen Bestehen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, Wien, 22.-25. September 2004, 2005
This paper focuses on one particular aspect of political and cultural contacts between the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires that has received little attention, namely the representation of 16th century Habsburg embassies during their stay abroad. This element is closely linked with the way in which the Habsburg rulers saw themselves and vigorously tried to create an image of their monarchy. The first impression of a prince, as Machiavelli pointed out in his 'De principatibus', is determined by the impression one gets from the men in his environment. At least in the 16th century, this adage was incessantly applied by Habsburg rulers in maintaining diplomatic contacts with other monarchs. Not only did they instruct their envoys to pay a great deal of attention to this aspect of their mission, but also the envoys exerted themselves to maintain their ruler's 'réputation', both visually and verbally. Recent research has shown that a cultural interpretation of diplomacy can shed light on the way in which two radically different cultures interacted. Christian Windler has successfully applied this model of interpretation to the 18th century relations between France and Algiers. Diplomacy is here seen as an element of representation of the State, of its values, its monarch and its culture and the diplomats as the more important actors in this process. The great value attached to reputation and physical appearance by both the Ottomans and the Habsburgs must be understood within the context of a slowly evolving modus vivendi of diplomatic relations wherein, in this century, no rules or protocol had been set and wherein both parties tried to enforce new regulations and modes of conduct. The paper reflects upon the cultural relevance of representation, using examples from 16th century Habsburg embassies in the Ottoman Empire. Aspects which are discussed are the material equipment of Habsburg envoys (clothing, horses, gifts, etc), the verbal communication (the envoy's oratio for example), conflicts over formal hierarchy with both Ottoman dignitaries and Christian colleagues and, finally, iconographic material. All these aspects were equally important for rulers and diplomats to create an image of the embassy in particular and the relations between the Emperor and the Sultan in general. By interpreting its place in Early Modern culture, the lecture also tries to show the historical relevance of the discussed themes and offer a broader view on the subject, together with outlining some possible thoughts for future research.
2015
This article examines the body of takrirs ¬– written representations – from the British ambassadors in Istanbul to the Ottoman government in the mid- and late eighteenth century, aiming to place these diplomatic representations within the wider Ottoman petitionary framework, and to illustrate the role of the ambassador in providing consular functions. It discusses the form and linguistic style of these documents, before analysing the two main types of cases found. The first concerns the freedom of movement and freedom from harassment requested by British travellers on land and at sea, in accordance with the rules of the Capitulations and custom. The second group of cases dealt with more complex legal disputes between British merchants and Ottoman subjects and officials involving the Capitulations and other sorts of legal practices. Examining these documents permits a view of the practice of diplomacy, and demonstrates how text and custom combined through the fluid interpretation of the Capitulations in order to regulate the rights and freedoms of British merchants through the Ottoman petitionary system. Bu makale, 18. yüzyılın ortalarında ve sonlarında İngiliz elçisi tarafından Osmanlı hükümetine sunulan takrirleri, bunları Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi çerçevesinde incelemek ve elçinin konsolosluk görevlerine ışık tutmak amacıyla inceleyecektir. Bu belgelerin şekil ve dili değerlendirildikten sonra, iki tip vaka analiz edilecektir. İlk gruptaki vakalar kapitülasyonlar ve diplomatik gelenekler uyarınca İngiliz tüccarlar ve seyyahlar tarafından talep edilen karada ve denizde seyahat özgürlüğü ve mal güvenliğini konu almaktadır. İkinci grup ise kapitülasyonlar ile diğer hukuki uygulamalara konu olan ve İngiliz ve Osmanlı tabileri arasında gerçekleşen daha karmaşık davaları içermektedir. Bu belgelerin incelenmesi diplomasinin uygulamasını görmemize imkan sağlamanın yanısıra, metin ve geleneğin, kapitulasyonların esnek bir yorumu üzerinden İngiliz tüccarlarının hak ve özgürlüklerini Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi üzerinden nasıl düzenlendiğini göstermektedir.