The role of food contamination by mycotoxins in human diseases: a review (original) (raw)
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Contamination of food with mycotoxins and human health
Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology
Mycotoxins are natural contaminants of cereals and other commodities throughout the world. They are produced by various strains of moulds, particularly in tropical countries. Due to significant trade of cereals, humans in temperate countries can also be exposed to mycotoxins. The most common route of exposure to mycotoxins is ingestion, but it may also involve dermal, respiratory, and parenteral routes, the last being associated with drug abuse. Apart from acute and chronic toxic effects on human health called mycotoxicosis, some mycotoxins are proved or suspected human carcinogens. This paper describes various human diseases caused by ergot, afflatoxin, ochratoxin A, 3-nitropropionic acid, trichothecene, zearalenone, and fumonisin. It also gives a quick review of human carcinogenicity evaluations of the international Agency for Research on Cancer and of regulatory limits of mycotoxin concentrations in various commodities.
Food Science and Technology, 2022
Mycotoxins are products of the secondary metabolism of fungi, which can be present in food as contaminants. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), these substances, making them relevant to global health, contaminate approximately 25% of all food worldwide. The occurrence of exposure to these mycotoxins is more common in developing countries, where their effects are more harmful to health due to the high rate of malnutrition in these places. The damage caused by them can manifest acutely or chronically, and among them stand out hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunogenicity, carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and teratogenesis and are associated with particularly dangerous nutritional disorders in children from poorer regions. This review focuses on aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and ochratoxins, with special attention to their impacts on human and animal health, based on experimental studies and case reports. The biomarkers most used in the detection of these substances based on their metabolism are also discussed.
An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health
Toxin Reviews, 2010
Mycotoxins are natural contaminants of cereals and other food commodities throughout the world and they significantly impact human and animal health. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by species of filamentous fungi growing on grains before harvest and in storage. When ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through skin, mycotoxins may reduce appetite and general performance, and cause sickness or death in humans. Mycotoxins subject to government regulation in most countries include aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and patulin, produced by species of Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, and ochratoxins pose the most serious threats to human health worldwide. This review describes the prevalence of mycotoxins in foods and its implications on human health, which may help in establishing and carrying out proper management strategies. Data from detailed investigations of food mycotoxins worldwide help provide safer food for consumption and help prioritize future research programs.
Mycotoxins in foods that cause damage to humans
Journal of Applied Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 2019
Background: Mycotoxins are toxic substances from the metabolism of RESULTING fungi Aspergillus flavus: such as, Aspergillus Penicillium, Aspergillus ochraceus, Penecillum expansum and Fusarium graminearum. There are four Important mycotoxins: aflatoxins, Ochratoxin A, patulin and deoxynivalenol being responsible for the contamination of food for human consumption. Methods: The research was Carried out and selected based on inclusion criteria, articles and publications related to mycotoxins, food, toxicity, Mechanisms of action and analysis, published in Scielo, MEDLINE / PubMed, Google academic and Science Direct, to the total of 65 articles Were reviewed, but only 50 met the inclusion criteria above. Results: The presence of mycotoxins in food remains a public health problem; it is found because worldwide and causes serious pathology in humans and animals both. Conclusion: it is Necessary to continue advancing in the investigations related to the presence of mycotoxins in food for ...
Mycotoxins as Causal Factors of Diseases in Humans
Toxin Reviews, 1999
The criteria of human mycotoxicoses are discussed and the role of certain mycotoxins in human diseases highlighted, e.g. ergotoxins (ergotism), trichothecenes, T2-toxin (alimentary toxic aleukia), aflatoxins (primary liver cancer), ochratoxins (Balkan Endemic Nephropathy and chronic interstitial nephropathy) and fumonisins (oesophageal cancer). The chemical properties and biochemical mechanism of action of aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 are discussed.
Food Industrial Processes - Methods and Equipment, 2012
The term mycotoxin was used for the first time in 1961 in the aftermath of a veterinary crisis in England, during which thousands of animals died. The disease was linked to a peanut meal, incorporated in the diet, contaminated with a toxin produced by the filamentous fungus Aspergillus flavus (Bennet & Klich, 2003; Richard, 2007). In general, mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight compounds that are synthetized during secondary metabolism by filamentous fungi; their chemical structure may range from simple C4 compounds to complex substances (Paterson & Lima, 2010). Mycotoxins are natural contaminants in raw materials, food and feeds. Mould species that produce mycotoxins are extremely common, and they can grow on a wide range of substrates under a wide range of environmental conditions; they occur in agricultural products all around the world (Bennet & Klich, 2003). Many mycotoxins may be toxic to vertebrates and other animal groups and, in low concentrations, some of them can cause autoimmune illnesses, and have allergenic properties, while others are teratogenic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic (Bennet & Klich, 2003; Council for Agricultural Science and Technology [CAST], 2003). Apparently, mycotoxins have no biochemical significance on fungal growth; they may have developed to provide a defense system against insects, microorganisms, nematodes, animals and humans (Etzel, 2002). Exposure to mycotoxins may occur through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, and it is almost always accidental. Most cases of mycotoxicoses (animals and humans) result from eating contaminated food. Human exposure can be direct via cereals or indirect via animal products (e.g. meat, milk and eggs) (CAST, 2003). Most mycotoxins are relatively heat-stable within the conventional food processing temperature range (80-121°C), therefore so little or no destruction occurs under normal cooking conditions, such as boiling and frying, or even following pasteurization (Milicevic et al., 2010). The stability of mycotoxins during food processing has been reviewed in the work by Bullerman & Bianchini (2007). In general, the application of a food process reduces mycotoxin concentrations significantly, but does not eliminate them completely. The food processes that have been examined include physical treatments (cleaning and milling) and thermal processing (e.g. cooking, baking, frying, roasting and extrusion). The different treatments have various effects on mycotoxins, and those that utilize the highest temperatures have the greatest effects: roasting or cooking at high temperatures (above 150 °C) appear to reduce mycotoxin concentrations significantly (Bullerman & Bianchini, 2007). www.intechopen.com Food Industrial Processes-Methods and Equipment 170 It has been estimated that 25% of the world's crops are affected by fungal growth, and commodities may be, both pre-and post-harvest, contaminated with mycotoxins. The mycotoxins that can be expected in food differ from country to country in relation to the different crops, agronomic practices and climatic conditions (Bryden, 2007). Since climate changes affect the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi, mycotoxin production is also influenced (Magan et al., 2003). Currently, more than 400 mycotoxins are known. Scientific attention has mainly focused on those that have proven to be carcinogenic and/or toxic in humans and animals. Five classes of mycotoxins are considered the most significant in agriculture and in the food industry: aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1), ochratoxins (ochratoxin A), fumonisins (fumonisin B1), zearalenone, and patulin which are derived from polyketide (PK) metabolism, and trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol), whose biosynthetic pathway is of terpenoid origin. PKs are metabolites that are derived from the repetitive condensation of acetate units or other short carboxylic acids, via an enzymatic mechanism that is similar to that responsible for fatty acid synthesis (Huffman et al., 2010). Aflatoxin, ochratoxin, fumonisin, trichothecene, zearalenone and patulin are the most widespread mycotoxins in animal feed and human food. The chemical structure, biosynthetic pathway, mycotoxigenic fungi, the influence of environmental factors and toxicology will be briefly described for each class. Zearalenone will not be dealth with in the present work as, because of its hormonal activity, there is considerable knowledge about ZEA and its derivatives which can be found in the literature on growth hormones. 1.1 Toxigenic fungi Aspergillus, Alternaria, Claviceps, Fusarium, Penicillium and Stachybotrys are the recognized genera of mycotoxigenic fungi (Milicevic et al., 2010; Reddy et al., 2010). Many of these genera are ubiquitous and, in some cases, apparently have a strong ecological link with human food supplies. The natural fungal flora associated with food production is dominated by the Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium genera (Sweeney & Dobson, 1998). Fusarium species are pathogens that are found on cereal crops and other commodities, and they produce mycotoxins before, or immediately after, the harvest. Some species of Aspergillus and Penicillium are also plant pathogens or commensals, but these genera are more commonly associated with commodities and food during drying and storage (Pitt, 2000). Toxigenic moulds are known to produce one or more of these toxic secondary metabolites. However, not all moulds are toxigenic and not all secondary metabolites from moulds are toxic. Many fungi produce several mycotoxins simultaneously, especially Fusarium species. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that the necrotrophic pathogens of wheat, Stagonospora nodorum, Pyrenophora tritiirepentis and Alternaria alternata, are also capable of synthesizing an array of mycotoxic compounds during disease development (Solomon, 2011). Nowadays, the identification and quantification of mycotoginenic fungi are carried out by PCR. Diagnostic PCR-based systems are now available for all of the most relevant toxigenic fungi: producers of aflatoxins, trichotecenes, fumonisins and patulin (Niessen, 2007; Paterson, 2006). The primers for mycotoxin pathway sequences have been reviewed in the work by Paterson (2006). 1.2 Influence of environmental factors on mycototoxin production The production of mycotoxins is highly susceptible to temperature, moisture, water activity (a w), pH and oxygen concentration, the same environmental factors that affect the growth of www.intechopen.com Mycotoxins in Food 171 toxygenic fungi. Moisture and temperature are two factors that have a crucial effect on fungal proliferation and toxin biosynthesis (Bryden, 2007; Paterson & Lima, 2010). The incidence and level of mycotoxin contamination are closely related to the geographic position and to seasonal factors as well as to the cultivation, harvesting, stocking, and transport conditions (Milicevic et al., 2010). Mycotoxin contaminations can be divided into the one that occurs in the developing crop (preharvest) and the one that develops after maturation (post-harvest). In the pre-harvest period, preventive measures are included in good agronomic practices, such as the careful use of insecticides and fungicides, irrigation to avoid moisture stress, harvesting at maturity and improvement by genetic resistance to fungal attack. During the post-harvest period, the control of the moisture and temperature of the stored commodity will largely determine the degree of fungal activity and consequently the mycotoxin synthesis (Bryden, 2007). Treatments with chemicals, including sodium bisulfite, ozone, and ammonia, acids and bases, represent an opportunity to control fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis in stored grains (Bozoglu, 2009; Magan, 2006; Magan & Aldred, 2007). In recent years, a good control of mycotoxigenic fungi has been achieved using plant products (e.g. extracts and essential oils) as environmental friendly fungicides (Nguefacka et al., 2004; Reddy et al., 2010; Thembo et al., 2010). Moreover, biological control represents a new opportunity in control strategies: there is evidence that Bacillus sp., propionic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are able to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production (Bianchini & Bullerman, 2010). 1.3 Toxicology and health Mycotoxins are toxic to vertebrates and humans at low concentrations. Mycotoxicoses in humans or animals have been characterized as food or feed related, non-contagious, nontransferable, and non-infectious (Zain, 2011). Mycotoxins have various acute and chronic effects on humans and animals, depending on the species. Within a given species, the impact of mycotoxins on health is influenced by age, sex, weight, diet, exposure to infectious agents, and the presence of other mycotoxins (synergistic effects) and pharmacologically active substances (Milicevic et al., 2010; Zain, 2011). The majority of mycotoxins currently known are grouped, according to their toxic activity, under chronic conditions as mutagenic, carcinogenic or teratogenic. Grouping according to their site of action results in hemo-, hepato-, nephron-, dermato-, neuro-or immunotoxins (Niessen, 2007). The most important mycotoxins worldwide are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, deoxinyvalenol and zearalenone. Carcinogenic properties have been recognized with regard to aflatoxin and fumonisins (Mazzoni et al., 2011; Wogan, 1992). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been linked to human primary liver cancer, in which it acts synergistically with HBV infection and it has been classified as a carcinogen in humans (Group 1 carcinogen). Fumonisin B1, the most abundant of the numerous fumonisin analogues, was classified as a Group 2B carcinogen (possibly carcinogenic to humans) (Zain, 2011; Wild & Gong, 2010). The potential role of dietary factors to counteract the toxic effects of mycotoxins has been reviewed by Galvano et al. (2001): the effect of antioxidants, food components and additives on reducing toxicity, by...
Public health impacts of foodborne mycotoxins
Annual review of food science and technology, 2014
Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by fungi that colonize food crops. The most agriculturally important mycotoxins known today are aflatoxins, which cause liver cancer and have also been implicated in child growth impairment and acute toxicoses; fumonisins, which have been associated with esophageal cancer (EC) and neural tube defects (NTDs); deoxynivalenol (DON) and other trichothecenes, which are immunotoxic and cause gastroenteritis; and ochratoxin A (OTA), which has been associated with renal diseases. This review describes the adverse human health impacts associated with these major groups of mycotoxins. First, we provide background on the fungi that produce these different mycotoxins and on the food crops commonly infected. Then, we describe each group of mycotoxins in greater detail, as well as the adverse effects associated with each mycotoxin and the populations worldwide at risk. We conclude with a brief discussion on estimations of global burden of...
Mycotoxins: A Growing Concern to Human and Animal Health
ABATRACT Mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites of moulds, are responsible for mycotoxicoses in humans and animals including birds. Although they occur more frequently in areas with a hot and humid climate, favorable for the growth of moulds, they can also be found in temperate zones. There are 400 mycotoxins produced by 350 species of fungi. Currently, five kinds of mycotoxinsMycotoxins are toxic byproducts (seconday metabolites) produced by fungi. namely, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, certain trichothecenes, and zearalenone are considered the most serious threat to human and animal health due to their potential of carcinogenic, hepatogenic, teratogenic,and mutagenic.. In addition to damaging animal health and reducing farm profitability, low quality fodder poses a threat to consumers because mycotoxins can accumulate in meat, milk and eggs. Three mechanisms whereby mycotoxins affect animals are impaired nutrient absorption and metabolism; the second involves endocrine...
Mycotoxins in the food chain: contamination of foods of animal origin
Food safety assurance and veterinary public health, 2019
The recognition and control of mycotoxin-related risks have improved markedly since the first recognized mycotoxin poisoning outbreaks in the late 1960's. However, mycotoxins remain a major public health concern, as mycotoxins occur throughout the agricultural regions of the world, with varying distribution patterns and concentrations over space and time. The dynamic nature of mycotoxin occurrence requires constant vigilance. Mycotoxins, produced by fungi that grow in plant materials used to produce animal feeds, represent a major risk to animal health, welfare and productivity, and are of public health concern, particularly in the case of aflatoxin contamination of milk. Other mycotoxins and their metabolites, including ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone, may contaminate foods of animal origin to some extent, but at a low level, and the associated risks are considered to be minor in comparison to the direct exposure of consumers form other (plant-derived) food commodities.