Chloramine in Drinking Water Collection (original) (raw)
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Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, 2007
In recent years, there has been a move away from the utilization of Free Chlorine to maintain a residual level of disinfectant in the distribution system towards the use of Monochloramine. The reason behind this change is to decrease the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), which are created when the Free Chlorine reacts with organic material in the water. The use of Monochloramines as a residual disinfectant has been deemed to be an inexpensive and effective means to meet new stringent EPA limits for DBPs in drinking water. There are a number of well-known advantages and disadvantages entailed in using Monochloramines for this purpose. The fact that many municipalities have made or are making the switch indicates that, to date, the advantages have outweighed the disadvantages. One area of potential concern that has been overlooked in the past dialogue weighing the pros and cons of switching has been the security repercussions entailed in a switch from Free Chlorine to Monochloramine.
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Chlorine, a commonly used hazardous substance, can be harmful to human health when improperly released. Data from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry's Hazardous Substances Emergency Events Surveillance system were used to conduct a retrospective analysis on the public health consequences from acute chlorine releases in 16 states during 1993 through 2000. There was an overall decline in the number of chlorine events during the period analyzed; however, chlorine events were more likely to result in events with victims, evacuations, and decontaminations when compared with non-chlorine events (relative risk [RR] = 4.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 4.1-5.0; RR 4.8, CI 4.3-5.3; and RR 2.0, CI 1.7-2.4, respectively). Most chlorine victims were employees and members of the general public. The predominant symptoms sustained were respiratory and eye irritation. Equipment failure and human error were the most frequent factors leading to an event. Continuous employee training and preventive equipment maintenance can help prevent chlorine releases from occurring and minimize exposure to the general public.
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Legionella constitutes the main cause of Legionnaires' disease (LD), a severe multisystem illness and life-threatening pulmonary infection. Manmade water systems are the main source of infection. Finding the most effective method is a matter of utmost importance. We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of disinfection methods against Legionella and the frequency of use of these methods. We recorded Legionella species and serogroups that are usually detected in manmade water systems, the building types and water systems where Legionella constitutes a problem. Literature search was conducted in two databases. Data were extracted from 141 studies that finally met the inclusion criteria. According to these studies, disinfection methods in manmade water systems were applied 259 times and the corresponding registrations were conducted in the data extraction form. Legionella pneumophila was the most common species detected in manmade water systems and Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 the most common serogroup. The majority of studies dealt with Legionella in hospitals and in hot and cold water systems. Chemical disinfection methods had longer duration, while the combination of physical and chemical disinfection methods was more effective. Pointofuse filters, Cooper silver ionization and Hydrogen peroxide proved to be the most effective methods. Cooper silver ionization had Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 245 the lowest percentage of Legionella concentration increase, while ultraviolet light had a temporary duration of effectiveness against Legionella in the water system. No disinfection method has a 100% reduction of Legionella concentration, 100% decrease of colonized sites and duration of effectiveness all at the same time. system; Man-made water systems; Public health where the bacterium exists, the frequency of use for each disinfection method according literature, the countries involved and finally to evaluate the effectiveness of disinfection methods.
PUBLIC HEALTH GOALS FOR CHEMICALS IN DRINKING WATER 1 , 1 , 1-TRICHLOROETHANE March 2006
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California with whom the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment contracted through the University of California Office of the President for their peer reviews of the public health goal documents, and gratefully acknowledge the comments received from all interested parties. This Public Health Goal (PHG) technical support document provides information on health effects from contaminants in drinking water. PHGs are developed for chemical contaminants based on the best available toxicological data in the scientific literature. These documents and the analyses contained in them provide estimates of the levels of contaminants in drinking water that would pose no significant health risk to individuals consuming the water on a daily basis over a lifetime. to perform risk assessments and adopt PHGs for contaminants in drinking water based exclusively on public health considerations. The Act requires that PHGs be set in accordance with the following criteria: 1. PHGs for acutely tox...
Effects of plumbing systems on human exposure to disinfection byproducts in water: a case study
Journal of Water and Health
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in water distribution systems (WDS) are monitored for regulatory compliance, while populations are exposed to DBPs in tap water that may be different due to stagnation of water in plumbing pipes (PP) and heating in hot water tanks (HWT). This study investigated the effects of water stagnation in PP and HWT on exposure and risk of DBPs to humans. Trihalomethanes (THMs) in PP and HWT were observed to be 1.1–2.4 and 1.6–3.0 times, respectively, to THMs in the WDS, while haloacetic acids (HAAs) were 0.9–1.8 and 1.2–1.9 times, respectively, to HAAs in the WDS. The chronic daily intakes of DBPs from PP and HWT were 0.6–1.8 and 0.5–2.3 times the intakes from WDS. The cancer risks from PP and HWT were 1.46 (0.40–4.3) and 1.68 (0.35–5.1) times the cancer risks from WDS. The findings may assist in regulating DBPs exposure concentrations.