Are children safe indoor from outdoor air pollution? A short review (original) (raw)
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Indoor air pollution and the respiratory health of children
Pediatric Pulmonology, 1999
Indoor air pollution (IAP) is a key contributor to the global burden of disease mainly in developing countries. The use of solid fuel for cooking and heating is the main source of IAP in developing countries, accounting for an estimated 3.5 million deaths and 4.5% of Disability-Adjusted Life Years in 2010. Other sources of IAP include indoor smoking, infiltration of pollutants from outdoor sources and substances emitted from an array of human utilities and biological materials. Children are among the most vulnerable groups for adverse effects of IAP. The respiratory system is a primary target of air pollutants resulting in a wide range of acute and chronic effects. The spectrum of respiratory adverse effects ranges from mild subclinical changes and mild symptoms to life threatening conditions and even death. However, IAP is a modifiable risk factor having potential mitigating interventions. Possible interventions range from simple behavior change to structural changes and from shifting of unclean cooking fuel to clean cooking fuel. Shifting from use of solid fuel to clean fuel invariably reduces household air pollution in developing countries, but such a change is challenging. This review aims to summarize the available information on IAP exposure during childhood and its effects on respiratory health in developing countries. It specifically discusses the common sources of IAP, susceptibility of children to air pollution, mechanisms of action, common respiratory conditions, preventive and mitigating strategies.
Health Effects of Indoor Air Quality on Children and Young People
Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, 2020
The inside story: Health effects of indoor air quality on children and young people Glossary Some of the terms used in this report may be unfamiliar to readers. There are brief descriptions in the text; this glossary is intended as a helpful reference point and to provide some additional context. Ammonia At room temperature ammonia is a gas. It is found in many cleaning products and in tobacco smoke. Outdoor sources such as industry and agriculture can also contribute to exposure indoors. Animal and biological pollutants Indoor allergens include those from house dust mites (HDM), cat, dog, cockroach and mouse allergens. Mould and fungi are also found indoors and can reduce air quality. These pollutants are found in the air, dust and on furniture. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO 2) concentrations are used to assess the adequacy of ventilation in rooms and buildings. High levels of CO 2 are a sign of inadequate ventilation and may have cognitive effects such as reduced ability to concentrate. CO 2 in indoor air is also influenced by the levels outdoors. This atmospheric CO 2 has been increasing in recent decades, in part due to the use of fossil fuels, and is a significant factor in climate change. Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless and odourless highly poisonous gas, formed from the incomplete combustion of fuels. Common sources include cooking and heating appliances, vehicle emissions, and smoking. Endocrine disrupting chemicals Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) are generally synthetic compounds and interfere with human hormones. They are found in pesticides, personal care and cleaning products, household items and a range of materials including paints. Indoors these are often present in dust and in the air. See also 'semi-volatile organic compounds'. Endotoxin Endotoxin is shed from bacteria and can be found indoors in the dust or the air. Studies often look at endotoxin alongside β-d-glucan, a marker for bacteria or mould in the home. Flame retardants Flame retardants are substances added to combustible materials to stop or slow fire. The term is based on the function as the chemicals used are quite diverse. They are used to treat a variety of building materials and furnishings. Some flame retardants are known to be Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals. One type, Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), is no longer produced in the EU. The inside story: Health effects of indoor air quality on children and young people Formaldehyde Formaldehyde is a naturally occurring gas and produced synthetically for a wide range of uses. It is present in many building materials, furniture, coatings and finishes, and household products. It is also found in tobacco smoke, produced in chemical reactions, and can be emitted through cooking. Nitrogen oxides Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) are key components of outdoor air pollution. Together they are often referred to as NO X and are a product of combustion. Sources include motor vehicles, energy production, and industry. Indoor air quality is affected by outdoor NO X coming inside. Indoor pollution (NO 2 in particular) can be caused by burning gas, oil, paraffin, coal or wood. Tobacco smoking and candles are also sources. Ozone Ozone (O 3) can be produced when sunlight reacts with pollutant mixtures in the atmosphere. At ground-level it is a significant air pollutant and, like other outdoor air pollutants, also enters buildings. Ozone can also be produced by some devices such as printers, photocopiers and some air cleaning appliances. Ozone reacts with other indoor air pollutants. In contrast, ozone in the stratosphere protects against ultraviolet rays and became depleted through the use of Chlorinated Fluorocarbons (CFCs) which are now banned. Particulate matter Particulate matter (PM) is suspended droplets and inhalable solid particles found in the air, in dust, or on surfaces. PM is usually classified into three categories. These are grouped by the maximum diameter in micrometres: inhalable particles (PM 10), fine particles (PM 2.5), and ultrafine particles (UFP). UFP have a diameter of less than 0.1 micrometre. The chemical composition of PM in the air changes depending on the source of the particles. Major indoor PM sources include outdoor air, smoking, cooking, burning (fires, stoves, candles, and incense), cleaning and people. Per-and poly-fluorinated alkyl substances Per-and poly-fluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of manufactured chemicals. These chemicals do not break down, and they can stay in the human body for a long time. PFAS are used as stain or water repellents on a wide range of products, and in non-stick coatings. They have been found in air and dust samples indoors. Pesticides or insecticides Pesticides and insecticides are mainly used outdoors but can contribute to indoor air quality through air, soil or other particles entering the home. Indoor uses include to control pests in the home, on pets, and for houseplants. There are a range of diverse chemicals used, including organophosphates (halogenated and non-halogenated). Phenols Phenols are a type of synthetic, water-soluble chemical (organic phenol is commonly found in foods). Indoors, phenols are found in cleaning products, polishes, paints and adhesives. Phenols can also be released by burning wood, fuels or tobacco. The inside story: Health effects of indoor air quality on children and young people Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a subset of Volatile Organic Compounds. PAHs are formed from incomplete combustion of organic matter. Indoors this means key sources are outdoor air, cooking, and burning wood, coal or tobacco. PAHs include benzene, benzo-a-pyrene, naphthalene, toluene, and xylenes. See also 'Volatile Organic Compounds'. Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from a very wide range of indoor and outdoor sources. This happens through combustion and from the use of products such as paints, coatings or pesticides; VOCs can vaporise into the air from the source materials. Total VOCs (TVOCs) is used as a measure of the combined concentration of VOCs.
Sources of indoor air pollution and respiratory health in preschool children
2010
We carried out bibliographic searches in PubMed and Embase.com for the period from 1996 to 2008 with the aim of reviewing the scientific literature on the relationship between various sources of indoor air pollution and the respiratory health of children under the age of five. Those studies that included adjusted correlation measurements for the most important confounding variables and which had an adequate population size were considered to be more relevant. The results concerning the relationship between gas energy sources and children's respiratory health were heterogeneous. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion in the poorest countries was found to be an important risk factor for lower respiratory tract infections. Solvents involved in redecorating, DYI work, painting, and so forth, were found to be related to an increased risk for general respiratory problems. The distribution of papers depending on the pollution source showed a clear relationship with lifestyle and the level of development.
Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children
Pediatrics, 2004
Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is now recognized as an important problem, both nationally and worldwide. Our scientific understanding of the spectrum of health effects of air pollution has increased, and numerous studies are finding important health effects from air pollution at levels once considered safe. Children and infants are among the most susceptible to many of the air pollutants. In addition to associations between air pollution and respiratory symptoms, asthma exacerbations, and asthma hospitalizations, recent studies have found links between air pollution and preterm birth, infant mortality, deficits in lung growth, and possibly, development of asthma. This policy statement summarizes the recent literature linking ambient air pollution to adverse health outcomes in children and includes a perspective on the current regulatory process. The statement provides advice to pediatricians on how to integrate issues regarding air quality and health into patient education and chil...
Analyses of human exposure to urban air quality in a children population
International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 2010
The association between particulate matter (PM) and health effects, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children, have been shown in several studies. In general this studies use outdoor concentrations to show this relationship, in spite of most people spend about 90% of their time indoors (Koening, J., 2005). Children spend a significant time of the day in school where the air is replete with a variety of air pollutants including PM. Indoor PM is a combination of indoor generated particle and outdoor penetration due to many building and environmental factors, such as air-exchange rate, infiltration factor, type of indoor activities, outdoor air pollution, PM diameter, etc. This study intends to correlate indoor and outdoor PM with less than 10µm diameter (PM 10 ) concentration, using modelling and measurements and study human exposure to urban air pollution levels in a children population.
Indoor particulate matter and lung function in children
Science of The Total Environment, 2019
People generally spend more time indoors than outdoors resulting in a higher proportion of exposure to particulate matter (PM) occurring indoors. Consequently, indoor PM levels, in contrast to outdoor PM levels, may have a stronger relationship with lung function. To test this hypothesis, indoor and outdoor PM 2.5 and fungal spore data were simultaneously collected from the homes of forty-four asthmatic children aged 10-16 years. An optical absorption technique was utilized on the collected PM 2.5 mass to obtain concentrations of black carbon (BC) and ultraviolet light absorbing particulate matter, (UVPM; a marker of light absorbing PM 2.5 emitted from smoldering organics). Enrolled children completed spirometry after environmental measurements were made. Given the high correlation between PM 2.5 , BC, and UVPM, principal component analysis was used to obtain uncorrelated summaries of the measured PM. Separate linear mixed-effect models were developed to estimate the association between principal components of the PM variables and spirometry values, as well as the uncorrelated original PM variables and spirometry values. A one-unit increase in the first principal component variable representing indoor PM (predominantly composed of UVPM and PM 2.5) was associated with 4.1% decrease (99% CI = −6.9, −1.4) in FEV 1 /FVC ratio. 11.3 μg/m 3 increase in indoor UVPM was associated with 6.4% and 14.7% decrease (99% CI = −10.4, −2.4 and 99% CI = −26.3, −2.9, respectively) in percent predicted FEV 1 /FVC ratio and FEF 25-75 respectively. Additionally, 17.7 μg/m 3 increase in indoor PM 2.5 was associated with 6.1% and 12.9% decrease (99% CI = −10.2, −1.9 and 99% CI = −24.9, −1.0, respectively) in percent predicted FEV 1 /FVC ratio and FEF 25-75 , respectively. Outdoor PM, indoor BC, and indoor fungal spores were not significantly associated with lung function.
Field study on schoolchildren’s exposure to indoor air in Porto, Portugal - Preliminary results
2012
Children spend most of their time indoors, both at home and at school. The duration and levels of these long term indoor air exposures might have a considerable impact on their health, namely by the potential risk of developing asthma and/or allergies. Children are particularly vulnerable to poor indoor air quality (IAQ) which typically results from the local ambient air, the specific buildings characteristics and the indoor activities. The EscoLAR project, in which the IAQ of 20 Portuguese schools as well as the homes of the children with detected evidence of respiratory disease will be studied, aims at determining the contribution of the schools´ indoor air to children´s overall indoor exposure. As part of this research project, the IAQ of 2 primary schools in Porto, Portugal was characterized. The results point out for poor ventilation in the schools and the effect of indoor sources on the quality of the air indoors. KEYWORDS Indoor air quality, schools, exposure assessment, field studies, risk assessment 1 INTRODUCTION Children spend most of their time in indoor environments, mainly at home and at school. The indoor pollution levels that they are exposed to and the duration of the exposure might have a considerable impact on their health for the rest of their lives, for instance, by the risk of developing asthma and/or allergies. Children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, since their bodies are still developing, they may have altered sensitivity to exposure to xenobiotics and their immune systems are too immature to respond effectively to environmental attacks. Besides, the air volume that they breath in, relative to their body weight, is considerable larger than in adults and they have also a longer lifetime and, therefore, a longer foreseen span of exposures to cope with ahead in their life (Viegi et al. 2004). The prevalence of asthma and allergy among children has increased quite rapidly in the last decades (Sun et al. 2009) at such a quick pace that, according to Etzel (2007), the finding cannot be explained by genetic changes and it is more likely to be due to changes in environmental exposures and/or in lifestyle. Many explanations have been offered, including the indoor air pollution, since each indoor environment has been made more and more air tight. Indoor air quality (IAQ) is determined by a combination of pollution sources, all of them having specificities associated to the place, the climate and the culture: the local ambient air, the buildings characteristics and the indoor activities (Oliveira Fernandes et al. 2008). The IAQ in schools is generically characterized by a complex of various exposures to indoor pollutants such as particulate matter, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), formaldehyde, molds and bacteria. The association between children's health and the indoor air exposures in
Adverse respiratory effects of Indoor air pollution
The effects of exposure to indoor air pollution in schools on respiratory symptoms in children are insufficiently understood. A survey was conducted to evaluate the association between indoor air exposure and children's respiratory symptoms.
Environment International, 2017
It has been shown that the exposure to airborne particulate matter is one of the most significant environmental risks people face. Since indoor environment is where people spend the majority of time, in order to protect against this risk, the origin of the particles needs to be understood: do they come from indoor, outdoor sources or both? Further, this question needs to be answered separately for each of the PM mass/number size fractions, as they originate from different sources. Numerous studies have been conducted for specific indoor environments or under specific setting. Here our aim was to go beyond the specifics of individual studies, and to explore, based on pooled data from the literature, whether there are generalizable trends in routes of exposure at homes, schools and day cares, offices and aged care facilities. To do this, we quantified the overall 24 h and occupancy weighted means of PM 10 , PM 2.5 and PN-particle number concentration. Based on this, we developed a summary of the indoor versus outdoor origin of indoor particles and compared the means to the WHO guidelines (for PM 10 and PM 2.5) and to the typical levels reported for urban environments (PN). We showed that the main origins of particle metrics differ from one type of indoor environment to another. For homes, outdoor air is the main origin of PM 10 and PM 2.5 but PN originate from indoor sources; for schools and day cares, outdoor air is the source of PN while PM 10 and PM 2.5 have indoor sources; and for offices, outdoor air is the source of all three particle size fractions. While each individual building is different, leading to differences in exposure and ideally necessitating its own assessment (which is very rarely done), our findings point to the existence of generalizable trends for the main types of indoor environments where people spend time, and therefore to the type of prevention measures which need to be considered in general for these environments.