“Modeling ancient Egyptian embalming”: radiological assessment of experimentally mummified human tissue by CT and MRI (original) (raw)
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Modeling Ancient Egyptian Mummification on Fresh Human Tissue: Macroscopic and Histological Aspects
Many studies have been concerned with the ancient Egyptian mummification method; nevertheless, little effort has been made to explore it experimentally. The goal of this study is to apply evidence-based diagnostic criteria and state-of-the art methodology in order to improve knowledge on soft tissues preservation and postmortem alterations. Two human lower limbs (LL) from a female donor were (1) “naturally” mummified by dry heat and (2) artificially in natron. At specific time intervals a macroscopic and radiological examination of the LL was performed and skin and muscle samples were taken for histological and biomolecular analysis. Temperature, humidity, pH, and weight of the LL were systematically measured. The mummification by dry heat was stopped after 7 days due to unexpected lack of mummification progress. The mummification in natron was completed successfully after 208 days. The humidity, the external temperature, and the pH were proven with Pearson correlation and principal component analysis as important factors for the mummification process. The steady removal of water from the tissues through the natron has prevented the putrefaction. This is also evident in the absence of bacteria or fungi through the microbiological analysis. The histological analysis revealed very good preservation of the skin and the muscle tissues. In the muscular sample certain degree of structural disintegration can be seen, particularly affecting the epimysium whilst in the skin sam- ples the epidermis, especially the stratum corneum, is mostly affected. The samples show better preservation compared with ancient Egyptian sections and other mummified tissues from historic or forensic context.
Human mummies have long been subjected to radiographic analysis as a primary investigative method. The study of mummified animal remains from ancient Egypt is less well-known, but can reveal a variety of important details about the contents of a mummy bundle. Radiological methods are non-invasive which means that the specimens are kept intact with no detrimental physical effects ensuring that the valuable archaeological resource is protected for future research. A PhD research project carried out at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology, University of Manchester, examined 127 animal mummies held in museum collections in the UK to establish the potential level of information that can be gleaned through the use of medical imaging techniques. In essence, conventional radiography (X-ray) and computed tomography (CT scanning) were employed to assess the potential value of each method in the study of this type of archaeological material. X-ray proved to be an excellent primary research method providing the all-important initial insight into the contents of the bundle. CT scanning was employed to add further detail. Along with the potential value of these techniques, a number of limiting factors were identified, many of which were unique to the nature of the animal material being studied. The potential advantages and disadvantages associated with the use of medical imaging techniques will be discussed in relation to mummified animal material.
American Journal of Neuroradiology, 2008
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Systematic facial mutilations during mummification have never been described before. The purpose of this work was to study a wrapped mummified head using highresolution CT scanning. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An isolated mummified head from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom was scanned at 200 m isotropic resolution. A prototype flat panel CT scanner was used to generate 800 nonoverlapping CT sections at 120 kV and 50 mA. This dataset was analyzed to discern various surgical alterations during mummification. RESULTS: There were large defects in the cribriform plate and the posterior fossa. Systematic mutilations of the facial bones and mandible, involving the anterior and inferior walls of the maxillary sinuses, the floor of both orbits, and the zygomatic arches with contiguous segments of the zygomas, were demonstrated. The coronoid processes of both mandibles had been sharply excised and the articular tubercles of the temporomandibular joints fractured. CONCLUSION: Defects in the ethmoid and the posterior skull base are consistent with previous descriptions of excerebration. Mutilations of the facial skeleton and jaw, which are unrelated to the process of excerebration, have never been described previously. It is noteworthy that the osteotomies selectively include the insertions of the muscles of mastication. These mutilations apparently were designed for mobilization of lower jaw. The "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony, described in the ancient texts, would be difficult to perform in the presence of rigor mortis; it is probable that the observed osteotomies were performed to facilitate this ceremony. Our research suggests that by the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian embalmers had developed highly sophisticated surgical techniques that have not been appreciated previously. X-Ray Radiographs Radiographs of the mummified head were taken to study the highresolution projectional anatomy of the skull. Standard projectional x-ray views of the head were acquired to first look at the structure of the head. Morphometric measurements and the integrity (and lack of integrity) of various skull bones were established. Multidetector CT Detailed tomographic examination was undertaken to investigate the internal structure of the bones and to look inside the cranial vault by
Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies, 2015
Using advanced modern technology is considered one of the most important methods of scientific examination and registration. This should be used in the field of the conservation of mummies. Identifying the case of the mummy and putting the mummy outwardly or inwardly are the first stage of good prognosis of damage, which naturally lead to the development of an appropriate plan for the operations of treatment and conservation starting from the stage of cleaning until museum presentation, through a consistent process with the requirements of preventive conservation. Computed Tomography Scanning (CT Scanning) is a noninvasive technique that does not harm the mummies. It has become an important tool for studying many features of ancient Egyptian mummies. The Study of Ancient Egypt, and particularly the examination of mummies, are subjects of interest of scientist and the public. It is fortunate that modern diagnostic methods of the study of ancient human beings can be applied today. The last forty years have seen a large number of CT scanning studies of Egyptian mummies from different museums and collections in Egypt, Europe and the USA. There is no doubt that this technique has proved to be a powerful tool in the field of Egyptian human remains research. CT studies confirm that the ancient Egyptian used several methods for the degree of quality of mummification This started with the selection of the most Suitable material to act as a filler for the internal to the body. CT studies confirm that the ancient Egyptian has used methods to support the body and maintain the external shape of the mummy. Research also stresses on the need for a new reading of the science of mummification according to the latest scientific methods of examination without any destructive activities toward the components of the various mummies. The main aim of this research is to study thoroughly the Third Intermediate Period mummies to show the level of sophistication of the technique of the mummification reached in this period.
Scenes from the Past: MR Imaging versus CT of Ancient Peruvian and Egyptian Mummified Tissues
RadioGraphics, 2013
Ancient Egyptian and Peruvian mummies are extremely valuable historical remains, and noninvasive methods for their examination are desirable. The current standard of reference for radiologic imaging of mummies is computed tomography (CT), with tissue having a homogeneous appearance on all CT images. It was long believed that ancient mummified tissue could not be studied with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging because of the low water content in mummies. Recently, however, the usefulness of MR imaging in the evaluation of mummified tissue was demonstrated for the first time, with use of a special ultrashort echo time technique. The authors of the present study acquired and analyzed MR imaging and CT data from the left hands of two ancient Egyptian mummies and the head of a third Egyptian mummy (ca 1500-1100 bce), as well as data from an ancient Peruvian mummy (ca 1100 ce). CT was found to provide superior detail of the anatomic structures, mainly because of its higher spatial resolution. The signal intensity of mummified tissue varied greatly on MR images; thus, the quality of these images is not yet comparable to that of clinical MR images, and further research will be needed to determine the full capacity of MR imaging in this setting. Nevertheless, additional information may theoretically be obtained with MR imaging, which should be viewed as complementary to, rather than a replacement for, CT.
The multifaceted nature of Egyptian mummification: Paleoradiological insights into child mummies
PLOS ONE, 2024
In accordance with ancient Egyptian beliefs, the preservation of the body after death was an important prerequisite for the continued existence of the deceased in the afterlife. This involved application of various physical interventions and magical rituals to the corpse. Computed tomography (CT), as the gold-standard technology in the field of paleoradiology, enables deeper insights into details of artificial body preservation. Therefore, CT was applied to investigate age at death, sex, mummification techniques, and the state of soft tissue preservation in 21 child mummies. The specimens are housed in European museums and were found in various archaeological sites. This sample included 12 males, 7 females, and two specimens of unknown sex, all between the ages of one and 14 years. Time periods were determined by radiocarbon dating, and time-related indicators of funerary equipment and decoration. Most of the mummies date from the Late Period to the Roman Period (664 BC–395 AD). Differences were identified concerning techniques of wrapping and embalming and removal of brain and internal organs, depending on age at death, social status and the archaeological site of the individuals. The variety and multifaceted nature of mummification and soft tissue preservation was analyzed in an integrated approach including a large number of specimens. The study highlights the significance of subadult remains as valuable bioarcheological archives to investigate burial customs and religious concepts in past societies.
Experimental mummification—In the tracks of the ancient Egyptians
Clinical Anatomy, 2020
Understanding natural and artificial postmortem alterations in different tissues of the human body is essential for bioarchaeology, paleogenetics, physical anthropology, forensic medicine, and many related disciplines. With this study, we tried to gain a better understanding of tissue alterations associated with the artificial mummification techniques of ancient Egypt, in particular for mummified visceral organs. We used several entire porcine organs and organ sections (liver, lung, stomach, ileum, and colon), which provided a close approximation to human organs. First, we dehydrated the specimens in artificial natron, before applying natural ointments, according to the ancient literary sources and recent publications. We periodically monitored the temperature, pH value, and weight of the specimens, in addition to radiodensity and volumetric measurements by clinical computed tomography and sampling for histological, bacteriological, and molecular analyses. After seven weeks, mummification was seen completed in all organs. We observed a considerable loss of weight and volume. We observed similar courses in the decay of tissue architecture but varying levels of DNA degradation. Bacteriologically we did not detect any of the initially identified taxa in the samples by the end of the mummification process, nor any fungi. This feasibility study established an experimental protocol for future experiments modeling ancient Egyptian mummification of visceral organs using human specimens. Understanding desiccation and mummification processes in non-pathological tissues of specific visceral organs may help to identify and interpret disease-specific alterations in mummified tissues in ancient Egyptian canopic jars and organ packages contained in whole mummies.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 2007
Historic mummies are a unique example of the human desire for immortality. Therefore, it is not surprising that modern diagnostic imaging has been widely applied to study them. Yet, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of such old remains has never been successfully achieved in a noninvasive way without rehydration. Furthermore, the impact of artificial mummification as done in ancient Egypt by natron (a blend of NaCl, Na 2 CO 3 , NaHCO 3 and NaP 2 SO 4 ) on human tissue with a particular focus on the sodium spatial distribution has never been addressed. Here, we show for the very first time completely noninvasive 1 H and 23 Na imaging of an ancient Egyptian mummified finger by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Protons could be visualized by NMR only in the tissue close to surface and sodium primarily in the bone, while computer tomography images both, soft tissue and bone but does not distinguish between different chemical elements. The selective enrichment of sodium in the bone may by due to postmortem incorporation of 23 Na into the tissue by natron-based mummification because our reference measurement of a historical finger not subjected to artificial mummification showed no sodium signal at all. Our results demonstrate not only the general feasibility of nonclinical MRI to visualize historic dry human tissues but also shows the specific 1 H and 23 Na spatial distributions in such mummy tissue, which is particularly interesting for archeology and may open up a new application for MRI. D
Post-mortem Restorations in Ancient Egyptian Animal Mummies using Imaging
Papers on Anthropology XXIII/1, 2014
Animal mummy bundles in museum collections are evaluated through the application of imaging and are categorised as true, those containing skeletal remains, and pseudo, those containing non-skeletal remains. True mummies exhibited a variety of compositions, and frequently contained less than one complete individual despite the external appearance; an explanation for which has been ancient forgery. The analysis of animal mummy bundles in the Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank, University of Manchester, suggested that in some instances this explanation may be inaccurate. This paper discusses nine mummy bundles, which displayed a variety of post-mortem modifications interpreted in two ways: the necessity for physical completion and the concept of the mummy bundle (rather than the content) as the primary representation of the deceased.
Paleoradiology: Advanced CT in the Evaluation of Nine Egyptian Mummies
RadioGraphics, 2002
Axial thin-collimation state-of-the-art spiral computed tomography (CT) was combined with sagittal and coronal reformatting, three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction, and virtual "fly-through" techniques to nondestructively study nine Egyptian mummies. These techniques provided important paleopathologic and historical information about mummification techniques, depicted anatomy in the most informative imaging plane, illustrated the soft-tissue preservation and physical appearance of mummies in superb detail, and generated an intriguing virtual tour through hollow mummified remains without harming the specimens themselves. Images generated with these methods can help archaeologists and Egyptologists understand these fascinating members of mankind and can serve as adjunct visual aids for laypersons who are interested in mummies. CT has emerged as the imaging modality of choice for the examination of Egyptian mummies due to its noninvasive cross-sectional nature and inherently superior contrast and spatial resolution. As multi-detector row CT and postprocessing tools evolve, the capabilities and applications of CT will continue to proliferate, attesting to the expanded versatility and utility of CT as a noninvasive research tool in the multidisciplinary study of Egyptian mummies.