Validation of a low-cost portable 3-dimensional face scanner (original) (raw)
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Journal of oral & maxillofacial research
In this study is investigated if bundling of two scanners leads to better accuracy in recording faces than a standard face-scanning device. In a group of 28 volunteers, two test specimens were attached to their faces: one on their forehead and one turned 90° on their cheek. Each volunteer was scanned by FaceScan3D(®) and two bundled Artec EVA(®) scanners. The scans were aligned to a three-dimensional model of the test specimen, and the mean error was recorded. Length, width and angles between the test specimen's planes were compared. The mean deviation is significantly lower for the cheek test specimen in alignment (P < 0.001), length and width (P < 0.001) but not for the forehead test specimen in alignment and length and width (P > 0.05) using FaceScan3D(®). The aberration from the original angle between two sides of the test specimen is significantly lower measured with Artec EVA(®) for the angle between the front and the bottom plane of both test specimens (P < 0....
3D Face Scanner Comparison: Visual and Anthropometric Accuracy Analysis
Proceedings of 3DBODY.TECH 2021 - 12th International Conference and Exhibition on 3D Body Scanning and Processing Technologies, Lugano, Switzerland, 19-20 October 2021, 2021
Compared to traditional manual measurement methods, 3D face scanning has opened more design possibilities for face protection product development, such as masks and goggles, by acquiring the three-dimensional shape and dimension. Various scanning technologies have been developed with different levels of price, expertise, and functional sophistication. In order to appropriately utilize 3D face scan data for a particular purpose, it is crucial to understand the characteristics of each scanner and validate their accuracy. The purpose of this study was to compare the visual and anthropometric accuracy of 3D face scanners and explore the characteristics and applicability of each scanner. Threedimensional face data of nine participants were acquired with three scanners: Artec Leo, Structure Sensor, and Bellus3D FaceApp. Before scanning, seven landmarks were marked, and five measurements were taken manually. The visual accuracy of each scanner was evaluated by experts through a survey with real-time comparison between scan and real face. It included assessment for distortion of textured and non-textured scans, as well as the visibility of landmarks. Measurements were obtained using Rhino 7 and Anthroscan ScanWorX software, and the anthropometric accuracy of each scanner was compared based on the manual measurements. The results of this study presented the visual and dimensional accuracy of the face mesh creation of three scanners, providing a comprehensive review of possible uses in consideration of the cost and usability of each scanner.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
The use of three-dimensional face-scanning systems to obtain facial models is of increasing interest, however, systematic assessments of the reliability of portable face-scan devices have not been widely conducted. Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis were performed considering the accuracy of facial models obtained by portable face-scanners in comparison with that of those obtained by stationary face-scanning systems. A systematic literature search was conducted in electronic databases following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines for articles published from 1 January 2009 to 18 March 2020. A total of 2806 articles were identified, with 21 articles available for the narrative review and nine studies available for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis revealed that the accuracy of the digital face models generated by the portable scanners was not significantly different from that of the stationary face-scanning systems (standard m...
Validation of a High-Resolution 3D Face Scanner Based on Stereophotogrammetry
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on 3D Body Scanning Technologies, Lugano, Switzerland, 25-26 October 2011, 2011
Emerging 3D surface acquisition technologies have recently introduced new face scanning methodologies. Among passive methods, stereophotogrammetry has proved to be particularly promising in the evaluation of facial morphology. The aim of the current study is to propose and study a new and structured validation method for 3D face scanning system based on close-range stereophotogrammetry. The authors investigated accuracy of the FaceshapeMaxi5 3D photogrammetric scanner developed by Polishape 3D srl (spin-off of Politecnico di Bari). Measurements were taken over a set of 23 anthropological soft-tissue facial landmarks marked on two different dummies. The validation procedure consisted in: 1) determining the most appropriate photo-shooting parameters; 2) assessing the photogrammetric software precision; 3) testing the system measurements against those of a CMM. Critical was the camera system calibration process. A new method was implemented, namely full-field calibration. Accuracy was evaluated using different indicators. The operator error was measured by repeatedly digitising landmarks on the 3D model and it was within 0.059mm. The reproducibility error was calculated by digitising landmarks on two different occasions. The Euclidean distance between the two matched sets of coordinates was thus computed resulting within 0.090mm. Each dummy was digitised using a CMM of documented accuracy (0.5μm). The so obtained landmark coordinates were considered as the "gold standard". After Procrustes alignment, the displacement between the adjusted system coordinates and the "gold standard" was calculated. Therefore, the achieved results proved that the presented 3D face scanner was reliable enough for capturing facial morphology for clinical treatment and anthropological practice. The validation method is applicable to every kind of 3D Facial Scanner, requiring uniquely the presence of the textured and tessellated point cloud.
Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery, 2018
Laser scanner devices are acquiring a growing importance in facial anatomy. Most studies have analysed facial scans obtained through two simultaneous captures, whereas the same result can be obtained by consecutive three-dimensional (3D) scans. However, this latter procedure has not yet been validated. Fourteen volunteers underwent face image capture through stereophotogrammetry (VECTRA M3) and three consecutive facial scans through a laser scanner (Konica Minolta Vi910). The concordance between 14 linear distances, 12 angles, facial surface area and volume measurements was verified by the Bland-Altman test and calculation of absolute and relative technical errors of measurement (TEM/rTEM). The two facial images obtained by the different devices were then registered to calculate point-to-point distance. Most of linear distances and angles showed a high agreement, with "very good" or "good" rTEMs, ranging between 1.1% and 6.4%. Surface area measurements agreed wel...
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on 3D Body Scanning Technologies, Lugano, Switzerland, 19-20 October 2010, 2010
This experimental research work was aimed to develop a 3D photographic method to be used in orthodontics diagnoses, having particular characteristics: precision of measurement, robustness of the method, speed of relief, ease of scanning, portability and low weight of the final system, low cost, non-invasive equipment. Various solutions of the experimental setup have been implemented for the non-contact detection and measurement of the face soft tissues. This paper highlights the advantages and disadvantages of different setup designed during the trials, comparing them to identify the best solution that meets the characteristics listed above. Mainly two different types of photogrammetric approach were designed: the first one uses three cameras and projected grids in a dark environment; it is based on point triangulation. The second one uses 4 or 5 cameras and operates with applied on the background and on the face in ambient light; it is based also on the DSM methodology, and obtains more dense point clouds. The systems were tested scanning the head of a mannequin and real human faces. Within each type, several variants were tested to evaluate the differences, changing the conditions of projection, lighting, shooting. Moreover, the results for each approach were compared with those obtained by laser scanning (both on real face and on a mannequin), for which are already known the performances. The system that best meets the requirements for diagnostic use in orthodontics proved to be the second one, in which coded targets applied directly on the face were used, shooting in ambient light, adopting digital photo sensors having 10 megapixels, and using 4-5 shots synchronized. The commercial software PhotoModeler was used for the CAD reconstruction of the face, and Geomagic for measures and comparisons.
Digital dental cast placement in 3-dimensional, full-face reconstruction: A technical evaluation
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 2010
Introduction: Several noninvasive methods are used for 3-dimensional (3D) morphologic facial and dental analysis to aid practitioners during diagnosis and treatment planning. Integrating dental and facial noninvasive 3D reproduction could improve the efficacy of treatment management. Methods: Dental virtual model and soft-tissue facial morphology were digitally integrated from 11 adults with a 3D stereophotogrammetric imaging system (Vectra, Canfield Scientific, Fairfield, NJ). The digital 3D coordinates of 3 facial landmarks (N, nasion; Ftr, frontotemporale right; Ftl, frontotemporale left) and 3 dental landmarks (I, interincisor; Pr, PI, tips of the mesiovestibular cusps of the right and left first permanent premolars) were then obtained by using Vectra's software. Additionally, the coordinates of the same 6 landmarks were digitized directly on each subject by using a 3D computerized electromagnetic digitizer (in vivo). Seven linear measurements were made between the occlusal plane (Pr-I-Pl) and the facial landmarks (Ftr-N-Ftl). The accuracy and reliability of the reconstruction were tested by in-vivo measurements and repeated acquisitions. Results: The greatest mean relative error of measurements was smaller than 1.2%. No significant differences in repeatable reproductions were found. Conclusions: Integration of facial stereophotogrammetry acquisition and dental laser scan reproduction is possible with marginal error. (Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2010;138:84-8)
The Journal of prosthetic dentistry, 2018
The accuracy of the virtual images used in digital dentistry is essential to the success of oral rehabilitation. The purpose of this systematic review was to estimate the mean accuracy of digital technologies used to scan facial, skeletal, and intraoral tissues. A search strategy was applied in 4 databases and in the non-peer-reviewed literature from April through June 2017 and was updated in July 2017. Studies evaluating the dimensional accuracy of 3-dimensional images acquired by the scanning of hard and soft tissues were included. A total of 2093 studies were identified by the search strategy, of which 183 were initially screened for full-text reading and 34 were considered eligible for this review. The scanning of facial tissues showed deviation values ranging between 140 and 1330 μm, whereas the 3D reconstruction of the jaw bone ranged between 106 and 760 μm. The scanning of a dentate arch by intraoral and laboratorial scanners varied from 17 μm to 378 μm. For edentulous arches...