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The Eschatological Yom Kippur among the Second Temple Jews and Early Christians
Adventist Theological Society, 2022
The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) ritual, recorded in Leviticus chapter 16, is the central festival in the Jewish religious year. It is difficult for any Christian theologian to explain the atonement without considering the meaning of the Day of Atonement ritual in Leviticus 16. According to Hieke and Nicklas, “Leviticus 16 provides decisive impulses for understanding the basic theological message of the Cross.” Despite the central role that Leviticus 16 plays in the doctrine of the atonement, theologians are not united on the exact meaning of all the rites of this passage. The major questions surrounding this passage include, what is the exact meaning of Azazel? Are both goats representative Christ? Does Yom Kippur find complete fulfillment in the cross event? While the first two questions might have implications discussions surrounding Yom Kippur, this paper is mainly concerned with the last question. A study of the Jewish and early Christian understanding of Yom Kippur suggests that the Day of Atonement implies eschatology. So, the research attempts to answer the question of whether the cross event (which is such a central event to Christians) represents the complete fulfillment of Yom Kippur including its eschatological aspects. This paper argues that while the cross event is connected to Yom Kippur (due to Christ’s once for all sacrifice for sins), it is not a complete fulfillment of the Day of Atonement. There are several reasons for this conclusion. Firstly, because of the eschatological nature of Yom Kippur (as seen in the Jewish and early Christian understanding), it is to see the complete cleansing of the sanctuary, God’s people from sin and the banishment of Satan; and secondly, references to Yom Kippur in the New Testament (including the book of Hebrews) speak more to a future fulfillment of Yom Kippur from its time.
Detailed Table of Contents Preface .............................................. VII Brief Table of Contents............................XI Detailed Table of Contents ................... XIII List of Abbreviations ..........................XVIII Introduction .......................................... 1 1. The Topic and the Research Question 1 2. Methodological Remarks and Definitions 4 2.1 Different Types of Influence 4 2.2 Rite and Ritual 6 2.3 Myth and Mythology 7 2.4 The imaginaire 8 2.5 Christian Judaism 10 Part One Yom Kippur in Early Jewish Thought and Ritual Introduction 13 Chapter 1: The Names of Yom Kippur 15 Chapter 2: The Rituals of Yom Kippur 18 1. The Question of the Historicity of the Mishnaic Version of the Temple Ritual 19 2. The Temple Ritual 28 2.1 The Preparation Rites 28 2.2 The Entrances to the Holy of Holies 30 2.3 The Sending Away of the Scapegoat 31 2.4 The Closing Rituals 31 3. The Ritual of the People 33 3.1 Between Afflictions and Joy 33 3.2 Prayers 36 3.2.1 Yom Kippur Prayers in Palestine: Qumran 37 3.2.2 Yom Kippur Prayers in the Diaspora: Philo 46 3.2.3 Yom Kippur Prayers after the Destruction of the Temple 49 Conclusion: Prayers in and outside the Temple 64 3.3 A Controversial, Popular Blood Sacrifice: kapparot 65 3.4 Pagan and Christian Descriptions of Contemporary Yom Kippur Rites 68 3.4.1 Pagan Texts 68 3.4.2 Christian Texts 70 Chapter 3: Imaginaires of Yom Kippur 78 1. The Apocalyptic Imaginaire of Yom Kippur 79 1.1 High-Priestly Visions of God I: Apocalyptic Texts 79 1.2 The Mythologization of ‘Az’azel 85 1.2.1 Allusions to the Myth of ‘Az’azel in 1Enoch 10.......... 85 1.2.2 11QMelchizedek: Getting Explicit ............................... 90 1.2.3 The Apocalypse of Abraham: Zechariah 3 Meets the Demonology of ‘Az’azel.............................................. 92 Concluding Thoughts on ‘Az’azel in the ApocalypticLiterature 94 1.3 Etiologies 95 1.4 Qumran: The Current Period of Persecution as Yom Kippur 97 Conclusion 100 2. Yom Kippur in the Greek Diaspora 101 2.1 The Septuagint: Conservatism and Enculturation 102 2.2 Philo’s Allegorization of Yom Kippur 107 2.2.1 The Rationale of the People’s Yom Kippur Rituals ..... 107 2.2.2 The Allegorizations of Yom Kippur’s Temple Ritual .. 109 Conclusion .........................................114 2.3 The Vicarious Atoning Death in 4Maccabees 17 and the Imaginaire of Yom Kippur ................................................... 115 Excursus: The Scapegoat as Background for Vicarious Atoning Suffering in Isaiah and Josephus? .........116 Conclusion: Yom Kippur in the Greek Diaspora 117 3. The Christian Jewish Imaginaire of Yom Kippur 118 4. Aspects of the Rabbinic Imaginaire of Yom Kippur 118 4.1 Mythological Events Connected to Yom Kippur 121 4.2 Rabbinic Interpretations of the Temple Ritual ...124 4.2.1 The High Priests 124 4.2.2 Goats 127 4.2.3 Red Ribbons..........130 4.3 Rabbinic Interpretations of Ritual of the People 132 5. High-Priestly Visions of God III: Aspects of Yom Kippur in the Hekhalot Literature 134 Concluding Thoughts to Part One 139 Part Two The Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity in the First and Second Centuries Chapter 4: Yom Kippur in the Early Christian Imaginaire 145 1. Christ and the Scapegoat: Barnabas, Matthew and Galatians 147 1.1 The Tradition of Barnabas 148 1.1.1 The First Picture (Barnabas 7:3–5) 150 1.1.2 The Second Picture (Barnabas 7:6–11) 152 1.1.3 The Interpretation of the Proto-Typology in Justin, Tertullian and Hippolytus ............................................ 155 Excursus: Did the Scapegoat Rite Influence the Earliest Account of the Passion? John D. Crossan's Thesis ...... 161 1.2 Barabbas as Scapegoat in Matthew 27:15–23 ....................... 165 Excursus: The Catalytic Function of the Pharmakos and the Scapegoat ............................................................................. 171 1.3 The Redemptive Curse: An Allusion to the Scapegoat in Galatians 3? .......................................................................... 173 1.4 The Scapegoat as Catalyst? John 1:29 and 1Peter 2:24......... 176 1.4.1 John 1:29 ..................................................................... 176 1.4.2 1Peter 2:22–24 ............................................................. 178 2. Christ as High Priest: Hebrews .................................................... 180 2.1 The Setting............................................................................ 181 2.1.1 Sacred Time: The Present Eschaton as Yom Kippur.... 181 2.2.2 Sacred Space: The Heavenly Sanctuary ....................... 182 2.2 The High Priest and His Actions........................................... 184 2.3 The Participation of the People............................................. 190 2.4 Conclusions Regarding the High Priest in Hebrews.............. 193 2.5 History of Tradition: The Role of Zechariah 3 in the Justification of the High-Priestly Christology before Hebrews ...... 194 3. Christ as kapporet (ἱλαστήριον): Romans 3:25–26....................... 197 3.1 The Influence of Yom Kippur on Romans 3:25–26 .............. 198 3.2 Interpretation of Romans 3:25–26 ........................................ 202 3.3 Paul’s Predecessor: The Pre-Pauline Formula Romans 3:24/25–26a* ........................................................................ 204 4. Christ as Atonement (ἱλασμός): 1John ......................................... 205 5. Yom Kippur as Background to Early Christological Hymns? ...... 206 5.1 Colossians 1:12–20 ............................................................... 207 5.2 Philippians 2:6–11 ................................................................ 211 6. Historical Synthesis ..................................................................... 212 6.1 The Observance of Yom Kippur by First-Century Christians 213 6.2 The Abolition of Yom Kippur by First- and Second-Century Christians.............................................................................. 219 XVI Detailed Table of Contents 6.3 The History of Traditions ..................................................... 223 Concluding Thoughts ....................................................................... 225 Chapter 5: Yom Kippur Imagery in Gnosticism and in Early Christian Mysticism......................................................................................... 228 1. The High Priest’s Entrance in Valentinian Soteriology................ 229 2. The High Priest’s Entrance and the Ritual of the Bridal Chamber 232 3. Philonic and Valentinian Mysticism as Merged in Clement of Alexandria ................................................................................... 237 3.1 Stromateis 5:6:39:3–40:4 ...................................................... 238 3.2 Excerpts from Theodotus 27 ................................................. 240 Conclusions and Implications........................................................... 243 Chapter 6: Yom Kippur in Jewish Christian Legends ........................... 244 1. James, the Permanently Interceding High Priest .......................... 246 2. Zechariah’s Revelation on Yom Kippur....................................... 250 Excursus: Simeon and John as High Priests .................................... 255 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 257 Part Three The Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity from the Third to the Fifth Centuries Chapter 7: Christian Exegesis of Leviticus and the Polemics against the Contemporary Yom Kippur 261 1. Christian Exegesis of Leviticus and the Templization of the Liturgy 262 2. Christian Participation in the Jewish Fast 273 3. Christian Polemics against the Contemporary Yom Kippur 277 4. Anti-Christian Polemics in Yom Kippur Texts 283 Conclusion 288 Chapter 8: Yom Kippur and the Christian Autumn Festivals 290 1. The Encaenia, the Exaltation of the Cross and Yom Kippur 290 2. The Fast of the Seventh Month (Ember Day of September) and Yom Kippur 303 2.1 The Origin of the Solemn Fasts 304 2.2 Leo’s Sermons on the Fast of the Seventh Month and Yom Kippur 312 2.3 The Readings of the Fast of the Seventh Month and Yom Kippur.317 Conclusion 321 3. Eastern Commemoration of Gabriel’s Annunciation to Zechariah 322 General Conclusions 329 Appendix: Yom Kippur and Eastern Anaphoras 335 Bibliography 345
The Shadows of Things to Come: The Torahic Jewish Holidays as Milestones of the Future.
Kristóf Nyíri (ed.).: Facing the Future, Facing the Screen. Perspectives on Visual Learning, (eds. Petra Aczél, András Benedek, Kristóf Nyíri), Vol. 5., Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, 2022., 15–19., 2022
Jewish Temple Theology and the Mystery of the Cross: Atonement and the Two Goats of Yom Kippur
November , 2023
How a deeper understanding of the theology of Yom Kippur unlocks the paradox at the heart of Christian soteriology. On the Day of Atonement, two goats were brought before the high priest at the temple. One was chosen as the goat for the Lord, a spotless sacrifice, and the other was set aside for Azazel, doomed to bear sins into the wilderness. Jewish Temple Theology and the Mystery of the Cross shows how a theological appreciation for the two movements of Yom Kippur makes it possible to identify the paradox at the heart of Christian soteriology: in his single atoning act, Jesus Christ fulfills the work of both goats, without confusion, without division. Appreciation for this paradox helps illuminate many of the doctrinal debates in the history of Christian soteriology and offers a compelling way forward. Jewish Temple Theology and the Mystery of the Cross begins with a survey of biblical geography: first, a rich theological pilgrimage to Mount Zion, the home of beauty, goodness, and truth, and then to the surrounding desert, the wilderness of sin and sorrow. To appreciate the Yom Kippur liturgy, and to understand the priestly word "atonement," one must be oriented by this cosmic stage. Drawing on the best modern historical-critical scholarship, this volume reveals the wonders hidden in Leviticus and shows how a sophisticated theological interpretation of this book leads to breakthroughs in our understanding of Christ's saving work. Seeing the mystery of the cross from the perspective of the ancient Jewish scriptures has surprising results. For example, Richard Barry shows how Hans Urs von Balthasar's controversial theology of Holy Saturday is a compelling development of Azazel-goat soteriology; it is not only biblically licit but is in some ways mandated by the logic of Yom Kippur. At the same time, David Bentley Hart is celebrated for the way he powerfully advances modern YHWH-goat soteriology, yet obedience to the logic of Yom Kippur also necessitates a nuanced biblical critique of his muscular universalism. How can Christ fulfill the seemingly contradictory movements of both goats in a single saving work? Grappling with that question, Jewish Temple Theology and the Mystery of the Cross seeks to draw nearer to the heart of the mystery of salvation.
The Encyclopaedia of Judaism; Second Edition. Edited by Jacob Neusner, Alan J. Avery-Peck, and William Scott Green. 4 Vols.; Brill. Vol. I: 317-335., 2005
This article presents an overview of the annual Jewish festival calendar which demonstrates that they are not happenstance, nor properly understood merely as post hoc Judaizations of Canaanity folk festivals, but actually form a coherent and and indeed unique whole grounded in the Mosaic Torah, in which the major festivals and fasts recapitulate the primal creative events that formed the Jewish people as such. They mark these stages of spiritual purification and elevation when they move from the Exodus from Egypt in the spring month of Aviv/Nissan celebrated in Pesach/Passover, to the arrival at Mt. Sinai commemorated in Shavuot, and on through a purgation contained in the fast and mourning associated with the Golden Calf incident in Tisha B'Av, to an autumn month and a half of repentance which starts on the first of Ellul. This is a preparation for Moses's descent with the second set of Tablets on Yom Kippur, which brings renewed holiness and the Divine Presence into their midst - followed almost immediately by the joyous communion celebrated in Sukkot. Strengthened by this annual festival re-experiencing of the Mosaic generation's Exodus, reception of Torah at Mt. Sinai, and joyful communion with God, the Jewish people have been able to endure the long winter darknesses of post-Biblical history of struggle and exile that have threatened both their faith in God (Chanukah) and their very survival (Purim), themes ultimately taken up and resolved by the spring festival of Pesach, Passover. And so the cycle overlaps with itself, producing deeper layers of historical meaning down through the generations. Even the Messianic Age is symbolically represented in the festivals. Through this layering, each festival brings together the deep past, the present, and the future. The article goes on to describe in some detail the specific practices of those festivals, fasts and observances, in chronological sequence, for those who would like such a summary overview of the entire calendar.