Attitudes Toward Motherhood Among Sexual Minority Women in the United States (original) (raw)
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Attitudes toward Motherhood among U.S. Sexual Minority Women
In this article, we use data from the National Survey of Fertility Barriers—a national, population-based telephone survey—to examine how sexual minority women construct and value motherhood. We analyze the small (N = 43) random sample of self-identified sexual minority women using “survey-driven narrative construction,” which entails converting the structured answers and open-ended responses for each respondent into narratives and identifying themes. We focused on both sexual minority women’s desires and intentions to parent and on the importance they place on motherhood. We found that there is considerable variation in this population. Many sexual minority women distinguish between having and raising children, suggesting a broad notion of motherhood. We also found that sexual minority women without children are not all voluntarily childfree. Our results suggest that survey research on fertility would improve by explicitly addressing sexuality.
2017
2012-13 Graduate Student Researcher with Megan Sweeney, UCLA Department of Sociology. Conducted quantitative analysis of racial/ethnic and education differences in contraception and sterilization use. Used Stata statistical software to analyze large, nationally representative surveys (e.g., NSFG, CPS, GSS, ACS). 2010 Graduate Student Researcher with Mignon Moore, UCLA Department of Sociology. Assisted with manuscript preparation for Invisible Families: Gay Identities, Relationships, and Motherhood among Black Women (2011). 1 DISSERTATION INTRODUCTION Family Formation Among Sexual Minorities Historically, studies on childbearing and family formation patterns have focused on women and have not considered the attitudes and preferences of men (Almeling 2015; Greene and Biddlecom 2000). As childbearing has become increasingly separated from marriage (Waller 1999), it has become more important to understand men's perspectives on family formation (Greene and Biddlecom 2000). Indeed, previous research has found important differences between men and women in their attitudes toward childbearing and parenting (Kessler, Craig, Sagal and Quinn 2013; Koropeckyj-Cox and Pendell 2007; Marsiglio, Hutchinson and Cohan 2001). Among heterosexual women, less-educated women tend to prioritize parenthood as necessary for a meaningful life, while more-educated women may view their highly paid professions as obstacles to becoming a mother (Edin and Kefalas 2005; Johnson-Hanks, Bachrach, Morgan, and Kohler 2011; Waller 1999; but see Musick, England, Edgington, and Kangas 2009). Studies of heterosexual men, however, have found a positive relationship between education and parenting desires, suggesting that gender intersects with education to create different opportunity costs to becoming parents (Kessler et al. 2013; Morgan and Rackin 2010). Extensive previous research has shown that race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status shape meanings of parenthood among women (e.g., Edin and Kefalas 2005) and are important predictors of family formation patterns (e.g., Raley, Sweeney and Wondra 2015; Sweeney and Raley 2014). Less is known about future family expectations and desire for children among heterosexual men and among sexual minority men and women. Moreover, previous research has shown that children's well-being is influenced by parental resources (Kalil 2015; McLanahan 2 2004). Indeed, growing up with two biological, heterosexual, married parents is associated with better overall outcomes for children than all other family structures (Brown 2004; Cherlin 2004; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994; Seltzer 2000; Sweeney 2010). These studies, however, typically compared biological children in different-sex, married-parent households to those in singleparent households and did not include children with same-sex parents. Meanings of parenthood and perspectives on family formation may differ for sexual minorities because they are socially positioned differently than heterosexuals. Due to continued stigmatization and marginalization, sexual minorities are susceptible to minority stress, which promotes a lower sense of self-worth and decreased well-being (Meyer 2003). Historically, gay men and lesbians have been discouraged from having children (Mallon 2004; Mezey 2008), similar to patterns of stratified reproduction among heterosexual women that discourage poor and racial minority women from having children (Almeling 2015; Greil et al. 2011; Roberts 1997). Nevertheless, about one third of lesbians and one in six gay men have children (Gates, Badgett, Macomber, and Chambers 2007), as do over half of bisexual women and one third of bisexual men (Pew Research Center 2013). Although gay men and lesbians face barriers to becoming parents-including that they cannot have children within a same-sex relationship without assisted technology-sexual minorities become parents in a number of ways: through a heterosexual relationship, stepparenting, fostering or adoption, alternative insemination with donor sperm, or surrogacy. Yet the pathways to parenthood among gay men and lesbians and the barriers they perceive in achieving their family formation desires are influenced by their gender, race/ethnicity, class status, family background, as well as when they came to identify as gay. Previous research has shown that, like different-sex couples, racial minority same-sex couples were significantly more
Sexual minority women’s attitudes toward infants, children, and parenthood
Journal of Lesbian Studies, 2019
Little is known about the experiences of lesbian and bisexual women with infants or children or about their views on tradeoffs required by parenthood. In this study, we examined how reactions to experiences with infants/children, perceived trade-offs of parenthood, and self-reported nurturance vary as a function of women's sexual orientation. Two hundred cisgender childless women (53 lesbian, 57 plurisexual, 90 heterosexual) from the United States, recruited via social media, participated in this study. Results showed that lesbian women reported more negative attitudes toward infants/children and parenthood than did heterosexual women. Self-reported nurturance did not differ as a function of sexual orientation. Overall, lesbian women reported that they had less favorable experiences with infants and/or children and that they anticipated more social and economic costs involved with parenthood than did heterosexual women. Lesbian women also reported lower aspirations for parenthood than heterosexual women, and this was largely accounted for by differences in perceptions of the trade-offs involved with parenthood. Plurisexual women did not differ from lesbian or heterosexual women on any outcome. These results contribute to our understanding of why lesbian women are, on average, less likely than heterosexual women to aspire to parenthood.
Previous researchers have found evidence for differences in parenting goals between lesbian and gay people and their heterosexual peers. However, no previous research has quantified the parenting goals of bisexual people or evaluated parenting goals as a function of sexual partner gender. In addition, political and social climates for sexual minority people had improved rapidly since the last representative data on lesbian and gay peoples’ plans for parenthood were collected. We analyzed data from 3,941 childless lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual participants from the 2011–2013 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG; United States Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 2014), a nationally representative sample of United States residents aged 15 to 44 years. We found that statistically significant, within-gender sexual orientation differences in parenting plans persist, despite social and legal changes. Consistent with hypotheses, bisexual men’s parenting desires and intentions were similar to those of their heterosexual male peers and different from those of their gay male peers, while bisexual women’s reports were more mixed. Also consistent with hypotheses, the gender of the most recent sexual partner was a strong predictor of parenting goals. We discuss implications for mental and reproductive health-care providers, attorneys, social workers, and others who interact with sexual minority adults.
Sexual minority women and parenthood: Perceptions of friendship among childfree and new parents
Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2018
For many individuals, becoming a parent is an important milestone. The current study examined attitudes and beliefs about parenting among a sample of 196 self-identified bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women. Results showed no differences by sexual orientation for women’s desires and intentions to have children, their idealization of parenthood, and perceptions of their parental self-efficacy (i.e., their ability to care for a child). In contrast, differences did emerge by sexual orientation in aspects such as partner expectations as well as professional intentions (i.e., wanting a permanent position before becoming a parent). Bisexual women tended to anticipate lower partner support compared to heterosexual women. Lesbian women, however, had a greater preference to work full-time during parenthood and wanted a permanent position before becoming a parent compared to both bisexual and heterosexual women. Implications are discussed of how bisexual women’s perceptions of parenthood are both similar to and distinct from lesbian and heterosexual women.
Envisioning Future Parenthood Among Bisexual, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Women
sychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2018
For many individuals, becoming a parent is an important milestone. The current study examined attitudes and beliefs about parenting among a sample of 196 self identified bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women. Results showed no differences by sexual orientation for women's desires and intentions to have children, their idealization of parenthood, and perceptions of their parental self-efficacy (i.e., their ability to care for a child). In contrast, differences did emerge by sexual orientation in aspects such as partner expectations as well as professional intentions (i.e., wanting a permanent position before becoming a parent). Bisexual women tended to anticipate lower partner support compared to heterosexual women. Lesbian women, however, had a greater preference to work full-time during parenthood and wanted a permanent position before becoming a parent compared to both bisexual and heterosexual women. Implications are discussed of how bisexual women's perceptions of parenthood are both similar to and distinct from lesbian and heterosexual women.
Theory in Highly Cited Studies of Sexual Minority Parent Families: Variations and Implications
Journal of Homosexuality, 2016
This article includes a systematic review and citation analysis of the literature regarding sexual minority parent families, particularly attending to what theories have been used, and how. We consider the importance of theoretical frameworks for future research and implications for policy, practice, and law related to sexual minority parent families. Our review targets 30 highly cited studies located through Google Scholar (as an interdisciplinary search engine) and published within a specific timeframe (2005-2010). We highlight the dominant theoretical models employed across disciplines studying sexual minority parent families. Although the majority of studies reviewed referred to theoretical models or perspectives, explicit theoretical grounding was frequently lacking. Instead, the empirical work reviewed appeared to have a predominantly applied focus in addressing public debates on sexual minority parent families. We provide recommendations for how theory might be more fully integrated into the social science literature on sexual minority parents and their children.
2020
Minorities including lesbians may face disparities that contribute to minority stress, which leads to adverse health outcomes. The purpose of this social epidemiology study was to examine the association between insured status, perceived stress, and parental status among lesbians and nonlesbians. The theoretical foundation was minority stress, and the design was quantitative with a convenience sample of women aged 18 years and older. Data on demographics, perceived stress, fertility quality of life, and lesbian identity disclosure were collected via online survey. Among the 314 respondents, 102 self-selected as lesbian (49% parents), and 212 self-selected as nonlesbian (73.1% parents). More than 50% of participants had experience with some type of assisted reproduction (ART). Using the test for association, regardless of parental status or perceived stress, lesbians were more than twice as likely as nonlesbians (18.5% to 8.3%, respectively) to lack fertility treatment coverage; this difference was statistically significant, p < .05. Most participants (62.5%) fell in the moderate stress category. There were no statistically significant differences between groups in Fertility Quality of Life scores. Lesbians with children had a greater degree of outness (p < .001) compared to lesbians without children. Using logistic regression, insured status (p = .010) and perceived stress (p = .035) were associated with parenting status. Findings from the current study contribute to understanding minority stress of lesbians related to parenting and ART. Shifting social constructs to improve inclusivity may minimize minority stress and support public health. Assuring reproductive access and favorable social conditions may promote positive change for lesbians considering parenthood.
Sexual Minority Mothers: A Dyadic Exploration of Stigma, Identity, Support, and Parental Wellbeing
Journal of Homosexuality, 2022
For all couples, regardless of sexual orientation, transition to parenthood often increases stress, although, according to minority stress theory (MST), same-sex couples often experience additional stressors specifically related to their sexual orientation. In this study of 34 same-sex female couples (68 sexual minority mothers) who conceived their children with the use of sperm donation, we explored the intrapersonal and interpersonal influences of sexuality-related stigma, sexual identity, sexuality disclosure ("outness"), and social support on the wellbeing of each partner among these couples. We found support for MST, although the process worked differently based on the mother's role. Among the pregnant (gestational) mothers, personal experiences of sexuality related stigma, social support, and sexual identity disclosure were all associated with their individual wellbeing. In contrast, among the non-pregnant (non-gestational) mothers, these associations were more interpersonal in nature. Specifically, the non-gestational mothers' wellbeing was unrelated to their personal experiences of sexuality stigma but was associated with their partner's (the gestational mother's) reports of sexual identity centrality and affirmation and support from friends. In all, we found support for MST, such that greater sexuality stigma was associated with poorer wellbeing, but this relationship functioned differently depending on the mother's role.