Stimulus satiation: effects of repeated exposure to foods on pleasantness and intake (original) (raw)
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Appetite, 1999
The importance of hunger state for the acquisition and expression of chocolate craving was investigated. Seventeen chocolate cravers and 12 non-cravers were supplied with chocolate and instructed to eat some twice a day for 14 days. Within each group, subjects were allocated to one of two conditions, hungry-or full-trained. Hungry-trained subjects were asked to eat the chocolate exclusively at least 2 h after last eating; full-trained subjects were asked only to eat the chocolate 15-30 min after eating a meal. A diary was kept to encourage and allow assessment of compliance. At the start and end of the 2 weeks, subjects rated their craving for and anticipated intake of chocolate prior to eating it; then, on initial tasting, pleasantness of the taste was rated. All subjects made these ratings on one day when hungry and on another when full, as defined above. For cravers and non-cravers who ate chocolate exclusively when hungry, chocolate craving increased post-training, but, at least for cravers, only when ratings were made while hungry. For full-trained subjects, chocolate craving decreased posttraining, but this decrease did not depend on whether subjects were currently hungry or full. A similar pattern of results was found for anticipated intake and pleasantness of taste, except that pleasantness did not increase in hungry-trained subjects. The results are interpreted with reference to learned control of appetite and in particular to recent findings on incentive learning processes. Craving for chocolate or other foods may be an expression of a strong appetite elicited by hunger that has been acquired by repeated experience of eating the craved food when hungry.
Food liking, food wanting, and sensory-specific satiety
Appetite, 2009
Sensory-specific satiety refers to a temporary decline in pleasure derived from consuming a certain food in comparison to other unconsumed foods. It has been argued that such a reduction may not be limited to food liking but extends to food wanting as well. Animal research suggests that sensory-specific satiety reflects a reduction in both food liking and food wanting and in the present study it was investigated whether this also holds true for humans. Participants had to consume a certain amount of chocolate milk and afterwards approximately half of the participants played a game to obtain more chocolate milk, whereas the other half played a game to obtain crisps. Participants showed a decline in subjective liking of taste and smell of the chocolate milk in comparison to crisps.
Dynamic aspects of liking: post-prandial persistence of sensory specific satiety
Food Quality and Preference, 2005
The time dependence of the liking of foodstuffs was investigated in a study with 25 subjects, consisting of three parts: (1) on day one, a sensory specific satiety study, which was extended until 125 min after consumption; (2) on days two to seven, a repeated in home taste and evaluation study; (3) on day eight, a second sensory specific satiety study as in 1.
Pleasure and excess: Liking for and overconsumption of chocolate
Physiology & Behavior, 1995
SIOL BEHAV 57(1) 27-35, ! 995.-Responses to three different presentations of a highly liked food (chocolate) were measured in two groups of female subjects. One group of subjects identified themselves as overeaters of chocolate (overeaters), while the other group of subjects were of a similar age and body mass index, but ate this food in moderation (controls). The three conditions of presentation were (a) a fixed amount of milk chocolate; (b) ad lib access to milk chocolate; and (c) a self-selected amount of the individual's most preferred form of chocolate. The main findings were that variables associated with the excitation of appetite (hunger, desire to eat, prospective consumption) were higher in overeaters and variables associated with the inhibition of appetite (fullness, changes in pleasantness and pleasure of eating) were lower in overeaters relative to controls. It is suggested that investigations of individuals who eat certain foods to excess can inform our understanding of normative and aberrant eating behaviour.
Sensory-specific satiety is unaffected by manipulations of flavour intensity
Physiology & Behavior, 2009
Sensory-specific satiety (SSS) refers to the decline in evaluated pleasantness of a food when consumed as compared with other unconsumed foods. In two experiments it was investigated whether SSS is sensitive to manipulations of flavour intensity. In the first experiment, 40 participants (36 women) repeatedly consumed 20 ml of either high- (group Strong; n = 20) or low-intensity (group Weak) strawberry lemonade. If flavour intensity affects SSS these two groups should differ, but both groups displayed an equal degree of SSS concerning the evaluation of taste, smell, mouth feel, appearance and prospective consumption (largest F = 1.34). In Experiment 2, 60 participants (54 women) were randomly assigned to one of three groups of equal size and repeatedly exposed to 20 ml lemonade that increased (group Increase) or decreased (group Decrease) in flavour intensity, or retained a given intensity with each exposure (group Same). It was investigated whether online changes in flavour intensity interfere with the development of SSS, but again these groups displayed a similar degree of SSS to the lemonade (largest F = 1.40). It is concluded that manipulation of flavour intensity does not likely affect SSS.
Pharmacological versus sensory factors in the satiation of chocolate craving
Physiology & Behavior, 1994
This is the first experimental study directed at differentiating between physiological or sensory accounts of the satiation of nondrug cravings, using chocolate craving, the most common craving in North America. At the onset of craving, chocolate cravers consumed a chocolate bar, the caloric equivalent in "white chocolate" (containing none of the pharmacological components of chocolate), the pharmacological equivalent in cocoa capsules, placebo capsules, nothing, or white chocolate plus cocoa capsules. Chocolate reduced self-rated craving. The cocoa capsules, placebo, and no treatment conditions had virtually no effect. White chocolate produced partial abatement, unchanged by the addition of all the pharmacological factors in cocoa. This result indicates no role for pharmacological effects in the satisfaction of chocolate craving. It also suggests a role for aroma independent of sweetness, texture, and calories. Addiction Aroma Biogenic amines Chocolate Caffeine Cocoa Food craving Magnesium Methylxanthines Phenylethylamine Sweet Theobromine Tyramine
Appetite, 1991
Liking and craving for chocolate and related substances were surveyed in a sample of University of Pennsylvania undergraduates (n = 249) and their parents (n= 319). Chocolate was highly liked in all groups, with a stronger liking by females. Chocolate is the most craved food among females, and is craved by almost half of the female sample (in both age groups). Although this craving is related to a sweet craving, it cannot be accounted for as a craving for sweets. About half of the female cravers show a very well defined craving peak for chocolate in the perimenstrual period, beginning from a few days before the onset of menses and extending into the first few days of menses. There is not a significant relation in chocolate craving or liking between parents and their children. The current motivation for chocolate preference seems to be primarily, if not entirely, sensory. Liking for chocolate correlates significantly with liking for sweets and white chocolate. The liking for the sensory properties could originate in innate or acquired liking based on the sweetness, texture and aroma of chocolate, or it could be based in part on interactions between the postingestional effects of chocolate and a person's state (e.g., mood, hormone levels). Based on correlational data, we find little evidence for a relation between addiction to chocolate or the pharmacological (e.g., xanthine-based) effects of chocolate and the liking for chocolate. "Caviar is exquisite, but people don't declare their love with ten-pound heartshaped boxes of it. Fresh figs are heavenly, but you don't find them on your hotel pillow at night. Entire magazines are not devoted to lobster or asparagus. No one makes 3:00 AM runs to the 7-Eleven for butterscotch. But chocolate. .. chocolate inspires a passion normally reserved for things grander than food" (Roach, 1989, p. 135). Chocolate does indeed represent a passion at least among many in Western/industrialized countries. A discussion of chocolate requires a distinction between four terms: use, preference, liking and craving (see Rozin, 1979). Use refers to the objective measurement of amount consumed. Evidence of chocolate popularity in terms of use includes the fact that per capita intake of chocolate among Americans in the 1970s was 1.6 kg/year; the corresponding figure for Switzerland is 3.6 kg/year (Shively & Tarka, 1984). Preference requires a choice between alternatives. Liking is a subjective measure of attitude to a food, and often constitutes the principal account for This research was supported by funds granted to Paul Rozin from the Whitehall Foundation.
Sensory-specific satiety is impervious to the tasting of other foods with its assessment
Appetite, 2010
Sensory-specific satiety (SSS) refers to the reduction in pleasantness of a food with its consumption relative to other unconsumed foods. In a typical SSS paradigm, the participants receive a range of food items to taste and evaluate and then one of the foods is consumed ad libitum until satiation. After the consumption of the test food, all the foods (including the test food) are then again tasted and evaluated. If SSS is the result of habituation this evaluation of the test food after its consumption would be subject to dishabituation (i.e. recovery of SSS) if the other unconsumed foods are evaluated first. To examine whether this is the case a total of 57 participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: Test Food First (TFF; n = 28) or Test Food Last (TFL; n = 29). We hypothesized that group TFF would show stronger SSS than TFL. We found clear indication of SSS, but the degree of SSS did not differ between the two groups (F[1,55] < 1). This finding suggests that SSS is unaffected by the sequence of tasting food items with its assessment. The potential implications for understanding SSS in terms of habituation are discussed.
Food-related stimuli increase desire to eat in hungry and satiated human subjects
Current Psychology, 1991
In the present study, the effect of food-related cues on the desire to eat chocolate in hungry and satiated subjects was investigated. Subjects (n=46) were randomly assigned to either a hungry or satiated group and then assigned to a group receiving one of the following stimuli: taste (2 M&Ms), sight (a photograph of M&Ms), cognition (a passage describin M&Ms), or control (no stimulus). In each testing session, subjects rated their desire to eat chocolate before and after the 90-s presentation of the particular stimulus. Each subject was then given a half pound of M&Ms so that actual consumption could also be measured. Results indicated that, following the presentation of the sight and taste stimuli, the subjects’ desire to eat chocolate was significantly increased. Furthermore, no differences in chocolate consumption due to state of hunger or type of food-related stimulus presented were found.