The iconography of the Mycenaean warriors in the Eastern Mediterranean region (original) (raw)

The iconography of the Mycenaean warriors in the Eastern Mediterranean region

Abstract

Recently unearthed iconographic relics provide a wealth of knowledge about Mycenaeantype defense and offensive weapons. The aim of this dissertation is to review the debate, especially recent ideas, to argue for the iconographic source value of the Late Helladian IIIA, B, and C ages.

The Mycenae-type protective and offensive weapons of the Late Helladic IIIA (14001300 BC), IIIB (1300-1200 BC) and IIIC (1200-1125 BC) periods 1{ }^{1} are mostly well-known from the pottery and fresco descriptions of the the Mycenae palaces and Hattuša, as well as from the textual descriptions of letter fragments, found in Tell el-Amarna (following: EA). 2{ }^{2}

In my dissertation, I attempt to gather and compare all sources and descriptions of the Mycenae, or similar type protective and offensive weapons, from the Eastern Mediterranean. Our question is how the sources from these three different regions respond to the iconographic relics mentioned above, especially with regard to the highly controversial issue of Mycenaean hegemony.

The potshred from Hattuša dates back to ca. 1400 BC, to the time of the clash between Attariššija 3{ }^{3} and the Hittite forces. What appears to be a Mycenaean warrior carrying a sword and covered with elaborately decorated body armour is incised on its outer surface. He is wearing a plumed helmet with horns, which strongly resembles the helmets of a group of warriors, appearing on the (LH IIIC) warrior vase from Mycenae (illustration 1.). 4{ }^{4} Thus this incised artwork seems to be a Hittite expression of the earliest Mycenaean military incursions into Anatolia (illustration 2.). 5{ }^{5}

Some of the most famous late Achaean helmets are represented in the side „A" of the warrior’s vase from Mycenae, from LH IIIC (ca. 1200 BC). Although at first sight all of the helmets from side „A" look quite similar, some minor differences are present, therefore at least three different types of helmets can be identified. Besides their general shape, the helmets are similar in the horns, the upper crest holder, the plumes, and the embossed elements in the helmets’ surface. 6{ }^{6}

This first type seems to be without the cheek guards: the small lateral parts ended at the temples thus the helmet was more likely equipped with a large chin strap (illustration 2a.). 7{ }^{7} The second variant of this helmet is basically identical to the first one except that it seems to be equipped with cheek guards as attested by the presence of some embossed elements. In all the helmets the horns curve in front of the helmet into the framing band, probably intended to spring out diagonally (illustration 2b.). The third variant shows three bands located around the upper crest holder. These could be interpreted as decorative

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1{ }^{1} Cf. Németh 1999, 309. (Following: the Late Helladic is so-called, that LH.)
2{ }^{2} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40-43.
3{ }^{3} Perhaps, Madduwatta was first a local king of a Lukka city-state at the coast of southwestern Asia Minor. He faced a struggle in the Lukka Lands, against a „man from Ahhiya", named Attarsiya (or Atreus, in Hellenized rendering) and lost his rule. Tudhaliya II, the „Great King" of Hittite Empire, gave Madduwatta asylum, and even gave him the mountainous kingdom Zippasla (i.e. Sippylos, the mountainous part of Lydia?) with the Siyanti River Land (Maeandrus river?); on condition that Madduwatta uses it as a base to invade Arzawa. (Cf. Bryce 2002, 193.)
4{ }^{4} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
5{ }^{5} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
6{ }^{6} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
7{ }^{7} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40. ↩︎

elements or reinforcement strips made of different material. Also, this variant seems to be equipped with cheek guards as well. 8{ }^{8}

Depictions of Mycenaean warriors were also found in Egypt (illustration 3.), 9{ }^{9} on a number of papyrus fragments. These fragments were discovered in December 1936, by John Pendlebury, in a house (R43.2) on the eastern edge of the Central City at Tell el-Amarna. The house supposedly had a wooden shrine: beside the various cultic items, 10{ }^{10} a complete Mycenaean vase and an inscription was found too. 11{ }^{11} It is likely that the building served as a chapel for the divine king (Amenhotep III / Akhenaten) and that the artefacts found inside the building were strongly connected to this cult. 12{ }^{12}

The 40 pieces of the so-called EA 74100 painted papyruses found by John Pendlebury, today belong to the collection of the British museum (illustration 3a.). 13{ }^{13} It appears that the purely pictorial papyrus depicts a battle between Egyptians and Libyan warriors. A number of warriors seem to be coming to the aid of the Egyptians. The latter are well recognizable by the typical Egyptian white kilts (illustration 3.), and are equipped with helmets and various types of what seem to be leather armour. 14{ }^{14} Both the helmets and the two identified types of armour are unique in the Egyptian iconographical record, and, therefore, seem to identify and differentiate these people from the ones, who are usually depicted in Egyptian paintings. 15{ }^{15}

Parkinson and Schofield strongly argued that the helmets depicted on the papyrus should be identified as boar-tusk helmets and that the armour worn by the warriors shows parallels with known Aegean types of armour (illustration 3.). 16{ }^{16} Thus the warriors, depicted on the papyrus, are most likely Mycenaeans, apparently in the service of the pharaoh (illustration 5.). 17{ }^{17}

According to Kelder, the argues of the researchers can be confirmed by sources from five later historical periods. 18{ }^{18} The first source is the Poem of Pentaur, 19{ }^{19} which is the official Egyptian record of the military victory of Ramesses II (known as Ramses the Great, 12791213 BC) over the Hittite King Muwatalli II (1295-1272 BC) at the Battle of Kadesh, in 1274 BC. So proud Ramesses II was of this campaign that he „ordered" this poem, which details his personal valor against overwhelming odds, inscribed on the walls of temples in Abydos, Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel and in his Ramesseum. The poem also reflects on how Ramesses II and his advisories are preparing for the battle (illustration 4a.). Furthermore, a depiction belongs to the poem, in which Ramesses II and his advisories are surrounded by the Egyptian warriors, carrying rectangular shields and the foreign mercenaries [viz. Sherden] with round shields, and with long bronze swords (of Naue II type), wearing the famous boar-tusk helmets (illustration 4.). 20{ }^{20}

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8{ }^{8} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
9{ }^{9} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43.
10{ }^{10} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
11{ }^{11} „The great statue that the king caused to be made." (Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.)
12{ }^{12} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
13Cf{ }^{13} \mathrm{Cf}.
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection\_online/collection object_details.aspx?objectId=139810&part Id=1&place=35484&plaA=35484-3-1&page=18
14{ }^{14} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2012, 16.
15{ }^{15} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
16{ }^{16} Cf. Kelder 2010, 40.
17{ }^{17} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43.
18{ }^{18} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43.
19{ }^{19} Cf. https://www.ancient.eu/article/147/the-battle-of-kadesh–the-poem-of-pentaur/
20{ }^{20} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43. ↩︎

The following excerpts of the Poem of Pentaur are from the walls of the Karnak Temple, as translated by James Henry Breasted: 21{ }^{21}
„Now His Majesty prepared [for the battle 22{ }^{22} ] his [heavy 23{ }^{23} ] infantry [viz. Šerden 24{ }^{24} ] and his chariotry, and the Šerden, 25{ }^{25} captives of His Majesty’s, whom he had brought back [from the North Sea 26{ }^{26} ] by the victory of his strong arm [the pharaoh 27{ }^{27} ]; supplied with all their weapons, with the aim to get them prepared for a fight."

Which means that they were not voluntary mercenaries, but rather Mycenaean warriors, captured by Ramesses II, serving him as mercenaries (bodyguard / policeman), mine workers or simple workers. 28{ }^{28} I think that Lehmann’s idea of the Mycenaean Greeks serving as mercenaries around 1210 BC in Egypt is not too far-fetched. According to the Odyssey (14,240-286) after the Egyptians caught Odysseus, he served as a mercenary in Egypt for 7 years.

Secondly, the identification is strengthened by the excavations at Qantir, the site of the Ramesside capital Pi-ramesse in the eastern delta, where a piece of boar-tusk was found with perforations for attaching it to a leather frame. 29{ }^{29} It is likely that this piece was part of the famous boar-tusk helmets worn by the Mycenaean elite. 30{ }^{30} Moreover, the recent finding of a metal lamella (from a suit of scale-armour) on the Greek island of Salamis, 31{ }^{31} bearing the cartouche of Ramesses II, adds further weight to the possibility that Mycenaeans served in the Egyptian military. The thought of foreigners in the Egyptian military is not at all hypothetical (illustration 8a.). 32{ }^{32} For example, Egyptian kings from the Middle Kingdom onward used Nubian archers in their armies, and during the Ramesside times, the defeated Sea People were incorporated into the Egyptian army as well (illustration 6.). 33{ }^{33}

Additionally, a bronze scale of 61 mm , dating back to LH IIIC was found in the Achaean settlement of Pyla-Kokkinokremos, in Cyprus, together with weapons, bronze objects and shield bosses. 34{ }^{34} In the Uluburun shipwreck ( 1300 BC ) a large bronze scale ( 30×9030 \times 90 mm ) was found, together with several Canaanite, Cypriot and Achaean manufactured goods, along with raw materials, weaponry and ceramics. 35{ }^{35} After observing the above mentioned archaeological findings, can we claim that these Sherden had the Mycenae-type protective and offensive weapons?

Egyptians first mentioned the Sherden (š-r-d-n), the Shekelesh (š-k-l-š) and the Eqwesh (3-q-3-w-š = akawaš) 36{ }^{36} warriors in the second year of the reign of Ramesses II, in the Pharaoh’s inscriptions. According to the inscriptions, these warriors started tribal riots and

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21{ }^{21} Cf. https://www.ancient.eu/article/147/the-battle-of-kadesh–the-poem-of-pentaur/
22{ }^{22} English translation by Károly Pallanki.
23{ }^{23} English translation by Károly Pallanki.
24{ }^{24} English translation by Károly Pallanki.
25{ }^{25} The poem refers to predatory warriors and pirates here. (English translation by Károly Pallanki.)
26{ }^{26} The poem refers to the west of the Nile Delta. (English translation by Károly Pallanki.)
27{ }^{27} English translation by Károly Pallanki.
28{ }^{28} Cf. Lehmann 1983, 79-82.
29{ }^{29} Kelder notes (cf. Kelder 2010, 43.) in this respect the identification of two Minoans as fan-bearers on a relief from Amarna (cf. Kozloff 1977, 101-103; Haider 1996, 146, fig. 7), whilst it has been argued by Haider (1990, 19-22; 1996, 144-145) that Minoan shipwright lived at Peru-nefer (which was believed to be the harbor town of Memphis, but recently identified as the harbor of Avaris (cf. Bietak 2005, 17.).
30{ }^{30} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43.
31{ }^{31} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2012, 38.
32{ }^{32} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm
33{ }^{33} Cf. Kelder 2010, 43.
34{ }^{34} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2012, 38.
35{ }^{35} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2012, 38.
36{ }^{36} Cf. Harmatta 1967, 1-17. ↩︎

pirate actions in the western part of the Nile Delta. 37{ }^{37} These migrations have intensified during the reign of Merneptah (1213-1203 BC) and Ramesses III (1184-1153 BC). 38{ }^{38}

Situated in the west bank of the Nile in Luxor, the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu is an important structure of the New Kingdom period. Aside from its size and architectural and artistic importance, the temple is probably best known as the source of inscribed reliefs depicting the advent and defeat of the Sea People during the reign of Ramesses III. On the temple reliefs we can identify the Sherden’s weapons: the Naue II. type long-, and Aegean H type short bronze swords. 39{ }^{39} Additionally, among the protective gear we can mention the wild boar-helmet, the rounded shield and scale-armour. The scale-armour is similar to the Bronze cuirass of the Mycenaean age.

According to the Medinet Habu’s temple reliefs, Sherden warriors were equipped with large and medium sized shields, bonnet like helmets, swords, and two javelins. Notably, the first warriors represented with beard, earrings and what seems to be a light corselet with ribbons (Illustration 4.). The image to the right shows a - most probably - Sherden, wearing a „lobster style" cuirass, 40{ }^{40} full head helmet and large round shield. The shield seems to be reinforced by two long elements, placed on the inside, but after thorough investigation of the complete relief the two elements are likely to be only the ropes hanging from the ship sail. In the naval battle between the Sea People and the Egyptian army of Ramesses III, both the Sherden and Peleset ships are well represented. 41{ }^{41} The Sea People’s vessels have no oars (or no oars have been represented by the artist) and only the sail is shown. They have a single mast with a crow’s-net, high stern and prow, terminating in duck-heads, whose „bills" serve as battering device. The ships are steered by a large paddle. This type of vessel shows close similarity with the ship depicted on a stirrup jar from Skyros, on a krater sherd from Tiryns both dated back to LH IIIC. In this representation, the presumably Sherden warriors are equipped with long swords, large and medium sized, round shields and „lobster style" cuirass. 42{ }^{42}

Several hypothesis exist about the Sherden warriors’ „lobster style" 43{ }^{43} or ribbons cuirass and corselet of the Sea People, represented in the Medinet Habu relief. These were interpreted as full bronze armour, linen (or other perishable material) corselet or a cuirass made by a mix of metal and non-metal elements. 44{ }^{44} The Medinet Habu temple reliefs can be grouped into four different types (illustration 6c.):
A) This full bronze armour is composed by chest and back plates, lower bands and shoulder/upper arm protections. Its general design is based on Achaean armour elements.
B) This bronze armour (i.e. cuirass) with chest/back plates and lower bands is worn above a linen or other perishable material.
C) This mixed cuirass is composed of a bronze chest and backplates, shoulder protection and quilted linen ribbons in the lower area.

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37{ }^{37} Cf. Lehmann 1983, 79-85.
38{ }^{38} Cf. Hölbl 1983, 123-124.
39{ }^{39} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2012, 17-18.
40{ }^{40} I have not seen it attributed as often, or with as much historical precedence that I know of, to the Mycenaeans but it is an ubiquitous feature for the Egyptians, the Sea People, the Levantines, and sometimes the Aegean. It is that sort of ‘tank top’ with two (or one, or sometimes none) shoulder straps and lobster style segments running horizontally across the torso. Unfortunately, the I only found secondary sources, without an associated historical reference.
41{ }^{41} Cf. Redford 1993, 241-256; Noort 1994, 53-168; 179-186.
42{ }^{42} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2015, 36-37.
43{ }^{43} Specifically what has my attention are three types of armour, and whether when not made of metal they were always linen or could be leather: 1) segmented cuirasses (see also: illustration 10.); 2) „Full" cuirasses (see also: illustration 11.); 3) ,lobster corselet" (see also: illustration 12.).
44{ }^{44} Cf. D’amato - Salimbeti 2015, 36-37. ↩︎

D) This relief shows a non metalic corselet, probably made of leather, or other perishable material.

The Achaeans and Trojan helmets are mentioned in several epics of the Iliad and Odyssey. 45{ }^{45} The descriptions of the helmets are not richly detailed, even if indications about the material, accessories, construction and peculiarity and generic characteristics are often given. Homer used different words to describe the helmets, the words bellow mentioned are used interchangeably and are not specifically dedicated to the size or shape of a particular helmet, for example ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 24: … v \varepsilon ̲́ \eta (cf. Iliad 3,316. copper helmet); кóрvz (cf. Iliad 3,369.; 4,459.; 5,4. - helmet with horsehair crest); κατατ~τvξ\kappa \alpha \tau \alpha \tilde{\tau} \tau v \xi (cf. Iliad 10,258. - helmet); τρvφα˙λεια\tau \rho v \varphi \dot{\alpha} \lambda \varepsilon \iota \alpha (cf. Iliad 3,372.; 3,376.; 5,182.- helmet); πη˙ληξ\pi \dot{\eta} \lambda \eta \xi (cf. Iliad 8,308.; 11,104.; 13,527. - helmet).

We can find out more about the exact characteristics of the Mycenaean helmets among the descriptions of Iliad, from the military equipment of the leading kings, such as Agamemnon, Achilles and Odysseus.

There are no indications of the general shape and material of Agamemnon’s helmet, because due to the extremely high rank of the person, the helmet can be logically imagined, as a well constructed bronze helmet with cheek guards. In the Iliad there is a detailed descripton of the various components and parts of the helmet’s decoration. In the Iliad, Agamemnon’s helmet has four plumes (or tufts) and two crests (or tubes) and the horsehair atop it tossing, bristling terror (cf. Iliad 11,41-42.).

Based on the above elements of Agamemnon’s helmet we can say that various elements came from archaeological evidences and Aegean figurative art. Because Agamemnon’s weaponry is from Cyprus (see also later the part dedicated to Agamemnon’s armour) the helmet’s general shape can be imagined based on one of the helmets of the warriors statue from Enkomi. In this case, equipped with two typical late Achaean cheek guards as from the specimen from Tyrins. The two horns were similar to the lead specimens from Dendra and the separate four tufts can be based on some late Achaeans helmet representation from pottery. The atop horsehair and relevant support were taken from the clay vessel from Boğazköy, showing a probable representation of an Ahhiyawa warrior (illustration 7a.). 46{ }^{46}

Iliad 11,41-42.:
„краті δ′επ˙\delta^{\prime} \varepsilon \dot{\pi} ` ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 28: … \mu \varphi i ̲́ \varphi \alpha… кvv ε˙ηvθετ^τ∘τετραφαλ˙ηρov\dot{\varepsilon} \eta v \theta \varepsilon \hat{\tau} \tau \circ \tau \varepsilon \tau \rho \alpha \varphi \alpha \dot{\lambda} \eta \rho o v
ï ππovρıv:\pi \pi o v \rho ı v: ö ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 24: …lon \imath v o ̲́ v ő ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 29: …lon} \lambda o ̲́ \varphi o \var… ̃̃vcuev."
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„three heads turned this way and that, growing forth from one neck.
And upon his head he set his helmet with two horns
and with bosses four, with horsehair crest"
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Based on the descriptions of Iliad, we can assume that Achilles had an old and a new helmet. 47{ }^{47} Achilles’ old helmet, a more Aegean/Anatolian variant, had a tall upper tube (cf. Iliad 16,795-799) and was very similar to the bronze helmet found in Cyprus (illustration 7b.). In this case, the helmet was modified with embossed red stars, which seem to be a heraldic emblem of Achilles.

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45{ }^{45} We can read a very accurate analysis about the Homeric Epic Helmets: Jürgen Borchhardt: Homerische Helme. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 1972.
46{ }^{46} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm
47{ }^{47} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm ↩︎

Achilles’ new helmet is considered to be a possibly bronze variant of the helmets shown in the side „A" of the famous warriors vase from Mycenae (cf. Iliad 22,314-316.). In this interpretation the four tubes were be intended to be the four horns. The voluminous and fluttering ,„gilden" horse-tail plume is placed in the tall crest holder. Furthermore, accordingly to the Achilles new panoply, the helmet was decorated with embossed star motif (illustration 7c.):

Iliad 16,795-799.:
, αε˙λω^πις τρνφα˙λεια,μαα˙vθησαv δεε εθεαραι\alpha \dot{\varepsilon} \lambda \hat{\omega} \pi \iota \varsigma ~ \tau \rho \nu \varphi \dot{\alpha} \lambda \varepsilon \iota \alpha, \mu \alpha \dot{\alpha} v \theta \eta \sigma \alpha v ~ \delta \varepsilon \varepsilon ~ \varepsilon \theta \varepsilon \alpha \rho \alpha \iota αη^ματι\alpha \hat{\eta} \mu \alpha \tau \iota καὶ κονήησι: ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 12: \pi \alpha ̲́ \rho o \varsig… γε μὲν οὐ ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 20: …ta \varepsilon ̲́ \mu \iota \var… ἦεν ἰππóκoμoν πῆλπףα 由αἰνεσθαι kovήησιν, ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 71: … \delta \rho o ̲́ s ~ \theta \va… ρ′σετ′λχμλληηoς:\rho^{\prime} \sigma \varepsilon \tau^{\prime} \lambda \chi \mu \lambda \lambda \eta \eta o \varsigma: τὸτε δεεεı^ς\delta \varepsilon \varepsilon \varepsilon \hat{\imath} \varsigma “Εκτορι δω^κεv′′\delta \hat{\omega} \kappa \varepsilon v^{\prime \prime}
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
beneath the feet of the horses-the crested helm; and the plumes were befouled with blood and dust.
Not until that hour had the gods suffered that helm with plume of horse-hair to be befouled with dust, but ever did it guard the head and comely brow of a godlike man, even of Achilles; but then Zeus vouchsafed it to Hector
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Iliad 22,314-316.:
„ἀγρίου, πρóσθεν δεε\delta \varepsilon \varepsilon σἀkos στερνoν\sigma \tau \varepsilon \rho \nu o \nu к αλ˙λvφε\alpha \dot{\lambda} \lambda v \varphi \varepsilon καλλ′vδαιδαλ˙ειov\kappa \alpha \lambda \lambda^{\prime} v \delta \alpha \iota \delta \alpha \dot{\lambda} \varepsilon \iota o v, кópuθh ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '̃' at position 132: …n \iota v \eta ̲̃ τετραφἀλφ: καλaὶ δεε\delta \varepsilon \varepsilon л ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 48: … \varepsilon i ̲́ o v \tau o ~ \…
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„fair and richly-dight, and tossed his bright
four-horned helm; and fair about it waved the plumes wrought of gold, that Hephaestus had set thick about the crest”
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Odysseus wore three different helmets. First, a boar-tusks helmet, cf. Iliad 10,260265.; secondly, a bronze helmet, cf. Odyssey 18,378.; and thirdly, a bronze helmet with horse tail. This helmet can be considered to be a possibly bronze variant of the helmets shown in the side „A" of the famous warriors vase from Mycenae, cf. Odyssey 22,111.

Iliad 10,260-265.:
„Μηριóνης δ′∇δvσηηı^δiδ∘vβιλvηδ˙ε\delta^{\prime} \nabla \delta v \sigma \eta \eta \hat{\imath} \delta i \delta \circ v \beta \iota \lambda v \eta \dot{\delta} \varepsilon φαρέτρην
καὶ ̇̇í φoς\varphi o \varsigma, α˙μφi\dot{\alpha} \mu \varphi i δε\delta \varepsilon oi ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 24: … v \varepsilon ̲́ \eta v \kappa …
ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 17: …rho \imath v o ̲́ πoηητηv:\pi o \eta \eta \tau \eta v: غo λεε˙σιvδ′εεvσσθεviμασ˙τv\lambda \varepsilon \dot{\varepsilon} \sigma \iota v \delta^{\prime} \varepsilon \varepsilon v \sigma \sigma \theta \varepsilon v i \mu \alpha \dot{\sigma} \tau v
ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 13: \varepsilon ̲́ v \tau \vareps… ὄκτοσθε δεελεvκoi\delta \varepsilon \varepsilon \lambda \varepsilon v \kappa o i óóvт ας\alpha \varsigma
ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 34: …\gamma \iota o ̲́ \delta o v \ta… καὶ εvθα\varepsilon v \theta \alpha
εı^καiεε˙πσταμεv˙voς:μεσ˙σηδ′εv′αı^λ∘ςαα˙ρηρεıτ."\varepsilon \hat{\imath} \kappa \alpha i \varepsilon \dot{\varepsilon} \pi \sigma \tau \alpha \mu \varepsilon \dot{v} v o \varsigma: \mu \varepsilon \dot{\sigma} \sigma \eta \delta^{\prime} \varepsilon v^{\prime} \alpha \hat{\imath} \lambda \circ \varsigma \alpha \dot{\alpha} \rho \eta \rho \varepsilon \imath \tau . "
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„And Meriones gave to Odysseus a bow and a quiver and a sword, and about his head he set a helm wrought of hide, and with many a tight-stretched thong was it made stiff within,
while without the white teeth of a boar of gleaming tusks were set thick on this side and that, well and cunningly, and within was fixed a lining of felt."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Odyssey 18,378.:
„, καi\kappa \alpha i к ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 195: …arsigma \alpha ̲́ \rho \alpha \r… "
(Vö.: Homer. The Odyssey with an English Translation: Augustus Taber Murray)

„,аnі тіотирқақ кыvє́aқ ұи́.кп́рсақ ілллоо́ипсіac"
(Võ.: Homer. The Odyssey with an English Translation: Augustus Taber Murray)
„and four helmets of bronze, with thick plumes of horse-hair"
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Similar descriptions can be found in Homeric epics about Menelaos’ (cf. Iliad 10,3031.; 13,614.), Paris’ (cf. Iliad 3,336-337.; 3,371-372.), Nestor’s (cf. Iliad 10,76.) and Aeneas’ (cf. Iliás 20, 162.) helmets, as well.

Iliad’s poems represent similar protective equipment to the bronze armour, corselet or cuirass depicted in Medinet Habu. For example, in descriptions of Agamemnon’s actions, Homer mentions his weapons, his armour and various elements and decoration of his armour (cf. Iliad 3,271-272.; 11,17-31.; 11,234-237.; 19,252-253.). Based on the above mentioned descriptions two reasonable hypothesis can be created about Agamemnon’s armour:
A) The armour was a typical Achaean panoply ( χαλ\chi \alpha \lambda ıкоя̧ıтóvov - cf. Iliad 1,371.) composed of two plates with shoulder guards and (as mentioned in the Iliad) a war belt (illustration 6a.). The armour can thus be based on the specimens found in Thebes or even on the one from Dendra, but in this case only equipped with a frontal and back waist plates. Naturally, the armour was fully decorated with black, gold and tin stripes, as mentioned in the Iliad. 48{ }^{48} The presence of snakes „laying toward the neck" is a possible indication of a neck guard decorated with colourful snakes. We know from archaeological evidences that the neck protections were used during all the Late Helladic periods so its use in Agamemnon’s panoply is perfectly reasonable 49{ }^{49}

Iliad 11,17-31.:
„кчџиїбақ ̧̧ ̧́v яро́та яєрі кчп́циппч б́п́рке
ка́́́́қ̆ ̧́ ργγηε˙σστv\rho \gamma \gamma \eta \dot{\varepsilon} \sigma \sigma \tau v є̇лıо́ ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 21: …hi \cup \rho і ̲́ o s á ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 22: …alpha \rho о i ̲́ a \varsigma:
о́сӣтєроv ио́ бtóррка [corslet] яєрі отп́р́tєоот є̇́бıvє,
тóv лотí oi Kıv́́pŋ̧ ̧́ ó́́́кє ̧̇́cıv́́́́ov cĩvaı.
лсóнcto ү́ap Kó πρov\pi \rho o v ó́ ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 17: …mu \varepsilon ̲́ \gamma \alpha кÁźoқ oũvєк’ 'A χμωi\chi \mu \omega \mathrm{i}
¿̇ Троі́ ηv\eta v vń σσσv\sigma \sigma \sigma v óvañ λε\lambda \varepsilon ó σεσθαι\sigma \varepsilon \sigma \theta \alpha \iota ̇́ μελλ\mu \varepsilon \lambda \lambda ov:
тoũvєка́ oi тòv ó́́́кє χαρı\chi \alpha \rho ı ́́́́ μεvoς\mu \varepsilon v o \varsigma ß ασıλn~n~\alpha \sigma \imath \lambda \tilde{n} \tilde{n}.
тoñ δ′\delta^{\prime} ñтoı óć κα\kappa \alpha oí μ0ς\mu 0 \varsigma ̇́ σαvμελαvoς\sigma \alpha v \mu \varepsilon \lambda \alpha v o \varsigma кıávoю,
о́ó δεκα\delta \varepsilon \kappa \alpha ó́ χρ∪σ\chi \rho \cup \sigma oĩo каі cĩkoоı кабпıтépono:
кıávoı 6є́ ó́ αα˙κovτες\alpha \dot{\alpha} \kappa o v \tau \varepsilon \varsigma ópopé χμτo\chi \mu \tau o яpoтi ó ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 30: …lpha \rho \eta ̲́ v
тpeĩ ̧̇ ̇́кáтє ρθ′\rho \theta^{\prime} 'Ĭ μσσv\mu \sigma \sigma v ó ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 17: …sigma \kappa o ̲́ \tau \varepsil…, ũ ς\varsigma тє Kpovióv
¿̇v vó ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 23: … \varepsilon i ̲́ oтñ̀̀ ̇́́̇, тé ρας\rho \alpha \varsigma ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 24: …epsilon \rho o ̲́ \pi \omega v óv ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 20: …ta \rho \omega ̲́ \pi \omega v.
á μφi\mu \varphi i ó’ ãp’ ó́ μо\mu о оот βα˙λετo\beta \dot{\alpha} \lambda \varepsilon \tau o čí φoς\varphi o \varsigma : ¿̇v óć oi ŋ̂ λo1\lambda o 1
χρσ˙σεωıαα˙μφαιvov,α˙τα˙ρ\chi \rho \dot{\sigma} \sigma \varepsilon \omega \imath \alpha \dot{\alpha} \mu \varphi \alpha \iota v o v, \dot{\alpha} \tau \dot{\alpha} \rho яєрі кош ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 23: … \varepsilon o ̲́ v ñ́ εv\varepsilon v
á ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 15: \rho \gamma o ̲́ \rho \varepsil… ó ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 23: …\rho \tau \eta ̲́ \rho \varepsil…
(Võ.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„The greaves first he set about his legs; beautiful they were, and fitted with silver ankle-pieces;
next he did on about his chest the corselet

[1]

48{ }^{48} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm
49{ }^{49} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm ↩︎

that on a time Cinyras had given him for a guest-gift.
For he heard afar in Cyprus the great rumour
that the Achaeans were about to sail forth to Troy in their ships,
wherefore he gave him the breastplate to do pleasure to the king.
Thereon verily were ten bands of dark cyanus,
and twelve of gold, and twenty of tin; and serpents of cyanus writhed up toward the neck, three on either side,
like rainbows that the son of Cronos hath set in the clouds, a portent for mortal men. And about his shoulders he flung his sword, whereon gleamed
studs of gold, while the scabbard about it was of silver, fitted with golden chains."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
B) The second hypothesis is based on the fact that the cuirass armour worn by Agamemnon (illustration 6b) is from Cyprus. Therefore, it is likely that it was a typical Near Eastern defence, made of small overlapped scales, which was also used by the Achaeans. This is proven by some archaeological sources and wellattested in Cyprus, both as scales specimens and art representation (of Cyprus’s Pyla-Kokkinokremos - illustration 8b.). 50{ }^{50} In this case, the black, gold and tin stripes were intended as the scale’s rows painted or made of different materials. The cuirass ended at waist level, where a belt was placed. The belt can be reconstructed based on the one depiction on the pottery fragment from Tiryns. Also, the presence of a neck guard with this scale armour is fully attested in archaeological sources, which also makes the reconstruction easier. The total number of rows, 44 ( 10 of gold, 12 black and 20 of tin) and ending the cuirass at the waist of the warrior, was not intentional, as it would have been too long. The different gold, black and tin rows covered the whole cuirass: 15 rows in the front, 15 rows in back and the other 14 rows divided on the two shoulder protections (illustration 7.) 51{ }^{51} (vö.: Iliad 11, 234-237.):
„Ï φเδ\varphi เ \delta ó μας\mu \alpha \varsigma ő ε\varepsilon ́ κατα˙\kappa \alpha \tau \dot{\alpha} ̌́ ω˙vηv\dot{\omega} v \eta v Өó ρηκoς\rho \eta \kappa o \varsigma [corselet] ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '̃' at position 13: \varepsilon ̲̃ v \varepsilon …
vú ξ′\xi^{\prime}, ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '̀' at position 79: …t{\tau} \tau o ̲̀ \varsigma ~ \v… :
oũ ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 127: …pha v \alpha i ̲́ \alpha \lambda…
ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 107: …} v \eta \mu o ̲́ \lambda \imath…
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„Iphidamas stabbed him on the girdle beneath the corselet, and put his weight into the thrust, trusting in his heavy hand; howbeit he pierced not the flashing girdle,
for long ere that the spear-point struck the silver, and was bent like lead."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Some elements of Menelaus’ armour were described by the Iliad 3,347.; 3,361.; 4,132-137.; 4,215-216.; 10,30-31. Based on the ulterior mentioned few elements Menelaus’ panoply could be interpreted as a typical Achaeans armour equipped with belts similar to the ones found in Thebes (but now more decorated) and underneath a lower abdomen protection „mitra", probably attached to a waist belt as shown in the „warrior vase" from Mycenae. The typical Achaean bronze armour composed of a cuirass, shoulder protections, belts (in this case attached to the lower edge of the cuirass with golden hooks) and a lower abdomen protection „mitra" (cf. Iliad 4,132-137.; 4,215-216.). These elements are mainly based on the

[1]

50{ }^{50} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm
51{ }^{51} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm ↩︎

findings from Thebes and Mycenae, as well as Late Helladic pottery representations and Linear B descriptions. 52{ }^{52}

Iliad 3,347.:
„,kαì βα˙λεv\beta \dot{\alpha} \lambda \varepsilon v Ἀτρεῖδαιo κατ’ α˙σπiδαπαv˙vτoσεı˙πηv,"\dot{\alpha} \sigma \pi i \delta \boldsymbol{\alpha} \pi \alpha \dot{v} v \tau o \sigma \varepsilon \dot{\imath} \pi \eta v, "
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„and smote upon the son of Atreus’ shield that was well balanced on every side"
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Iliad 3,361.:
„Ἀτρεῖδης ὃἱ ἐρυσσάμενος Ὑφος ἀργυρόηλον"
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„Then the son of Atreus drew his silver-studded sword"
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Iliad 4,132-137.:
„, αiτη˙δ′αı^τ′ı^θωvεvδθıζωστηη′ρ∘ς∂˙χη^ες\alpha i \tau \dot{\eta} \delta^{\prime} \alpha \hat{\imath} \tau^{\prime} \hat{\imath} \theta \omega v \varepsilon v \delta \theta \imath \zeta \omega \sigma \tau \eta \eta^{\prime} \rho \circ \varsigma \dot{\partial} \chi \hat{\eta} \varepsilon \varsigma
χρόπεωι σύνεχον καὶ ὅαλλλος ἦντετο θύρηζ,
ἐν δ’ ἔπεπε ὢοστῆρι ἀρηρότι πικρὸς ὑῑστός:
ὅὰ μὲν ἂρ ὢοστῆρος ὕλὴλατο ὅαὐαλέωιο,
καὶ ὅὰ θύρηκoς πoλoδαιoδάλον ἡρήρcorro
μἰτρῃς θ’, ἦν ἔφόρει ἔρυμα χροός ἔρκoς ἀκόν忛oν,
ἦ οἱ πλεῖστον ἔρυτο: ὅὰ πρὸ ὃἱ εἴσατο καὶ τῆς."
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„and of herself she guided it where the golden clasps of the belt were fastened and the corselet overlapped. On the clasped belt lighted the bitter arrow,
and through the belt richly dight was it driven, and clean through the curiously wrought corselet did it force its way, and through the taslet
which he wore, a screen for his flesh and a barrier against darts, wherein was his chiefest defence"
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Iliad 4,215-216.:
„λῦπε ὃἱ ὑi ὢοστῆρα παναίoλoν ἡδ’ ὑπένερθε
ἕδμὰ τε καὶ μἰτρην, τὴν χαλκῆες κα̣μoν ἄνδ̣̣oς."
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„And he loosed the flashing belt
and the kilt beneath and the taslet that the coppersmiths fashioned."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
In the Iliad very few elements are described of Achilles’ two panoplies. The first panoply was given to Patroclus and after his death, it was used by Hector, cf. Iliad 16,130134.; and 16, 804.: it is about a cuirass-type bronze amour here.

The second armour, worn by Achilles in the duel against Hector was forged by Hephaestus to replace the first one, which was stolen (cf. Iliad 18,474-475.). It is likely that it was a typical Achaeans armour. The armour was pictured as a typical Achaeans panoply, composed of a cuirass, shoulder guards and belts. Based on the specimens found in Dendra and Thebes the various elements were attached to each other by means of thongs. It is in accordance with the Iliad statement that the armour „comes unlaced", 53{ }^{53} based on the lines of

[1]

52{ }^{52} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm
53{ }^{53} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm ↩︎

Iliad 19,371. and 384-386. We can suspect that he did not wear any cuirass or corselet. Moreover, Achilles is described wearing beautiful greaves, reinforced with silver ankle protectors and a bronze sword with silver nails. 54{ }^{54}

Iliad 19,371.:
„ס̃eótepov α O˚ 0 ^ρηκα\alpha \hat{\text { O̊ 0 }} \boldsymbol{\rho} \boldsymbol{\eta} \boldsymbol{\kappa} \alpha [corselet 55{ }^{55} ] περi\pi \varepsilon \rho i στη˙θεσσιν\sigma \tau \dot{\eta} \theta \varepsilon \sigma \sigma \iota \nu E̊ δωvεv\delta \omega v \varepsilon v "
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„and next he did on the corselet about his chest."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)
Iliad 19,384-386.:
„ περηη˙θηδ′εεσαv˙τov^εv˙εε˙ττεσıδı^δςςλχμλλεı^ς\pi \varepsilon \rho \eta \dot{\eta} \theta \eta \delta^{\prime} \varepsilon \varepsilon \sigma \alpha \dot{v} \tau o \hat{v} \varepsilon \dot{v} \varepsilon \dot{\varepsilon} \tau \tau \varepsilon \sigma \imath \delta \hat{\imath} \delta \varsigma \varsigma \lambda \chi \mu \lambda \lambda \varepsilon \hat{\imath} \varsigma,
ei oí ó ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Expected 'EOF', got '́' at position 27: …pha \rho \mu o ̲́ \sigma \sigma … é ντρεεχoıαα˙γωα^γωı^α\nu \tau \rho \varepsilon \varepsilon \chi o \imath \alpha \dot{\alpha} \gamma \omega \hat{\alpha} \gamma \omega \hat{\imath} \alpha :
тӣ δ′εv^τεεπτερα˙γγ˙γνετ′\delta^{\prime} \varepsilon \hat{v} \tau \varepsilon \varepsilon \pi \tau \varepsilon \rho \dot{\alpha} \gamma \dot{\gamma} \gamma \nu \varepsilon \tau^{\prime}, α˙ειρεδεε˙πσμεε˙ταλαω^v."\dot{\alpha} \varepsilon \iota \rho \varepsilon \delta \varepsilon \dot{\varepsilon} \pi \sigma \mu \varepsilon \dot{\varepsilon} \tau \alpha \lambda \alpha \hat{\omega} v . "
(Vö.: Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. (Ed.): Thomas W. Allen.)
„And goodly Achilles made proof of himself in his armour, whether it fitted him, and his glorious limbs moved free;
and it became as it were wings to him, and lifted up the shepherd of the people."
(Translation by Augustus Taber Murray)

[1]

54{ }^{54} Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm
55{ }^{55} Although English is translated here as corselet, but based on Iliad 19,384-386. it can be suspected, that Achilles had been wearing an Achaeans armour, which it could have resembled the Dendra’s and the Thebes’ Bronze armour. ↩︎

Conclusion

Based on the LH I and II periods artistic representations, we can conclude that the Mycenaean used continuously the bronze plates and a multilayer Kiton (i.e. corselet) in the Aegean Sea. Before the appearance of the first cuirass, senior people used thick protective clothing, as well as highly decorated and gilded chest protector from the 16th century BC. After the introduction of the more complex and prestigious bronze cone, the first simple corselet appeared, which was mainly used by the middle-, and low ranking soldiers. They initially reinforced it with bronze plates. The later corselet of the LH IIIB period was equipped on a perishable material hardback chest plate with smooth and embossed bronze ribbons, in various forms and quantities.

This hypothesis is further strengthened by the following archaeological findings: depictions of warriors in side „A" and „B" of the warrior’s vase from Mycenae; as well as significant artifacts from the tomb of the Kallithea warrior. Moreover, in Thebes, on the inscriptions of Ramesses III at his Medinet Habu mortuary temple reliefs, four different types can be identified (i.e. full bronze armour, cuirass, composite cuirass and corselet).

The recent discovery of a metal lamella (from a suit of scale-armour) on the Greek island of Salamis; or a bronze scale (i.e. a scale-armour), which was found in the Achaean settlement of Pyla-Kokkinokremos, in Cyprus and in the Uluburun shipwreck. These archaeological evidences suggest two things. On one hand, the bronze scale could be imported from the ancient Middle East region. On the other hand, the humble local communities of the Mycenaean Greek mainland transported their ceramics to the West Anatolian coast, Cyrus and Achaean settlements of Syria, where they traded them, or perhaps robbed them.

Taking out of context of the archaeological findings of the Boğazköy, the Mycenae, the Tell el-Amarna, the Medinet Habu and the Avaris, we say that several auxiliary troops served in the army of the Egyptian New Kingdom and the New Kingdom of Hittite. The thought of foreigners in the Egyptian military is not wholly hypothetical. For example, Egyptian kings from the Middle Kingdom onward used Nubian archers in their armies, and during Ramesside times (i.e. from ca. 1350 BC) the Egyptians defeated the Mycenean soldiers (Sherden = š-r-d-n, Shekelesh = š-k-l-š and Eqwesh = 3-q-3-w-š = akawaš) in the western part of the Nile Delta. The Egyptians incorporated these defeated Mycenean soldiers into the army of the New Kingdom of Egypt. Later (i.e. ca. 1200 BC) the Egyptian collectively called them the Sea People. However, the most important conclusion from the context of the surviving archaeological finds in these cities is that the uniform armament of infantry and rowing soldiers suggests that there was a trained army that could fight in a coordinated style. This required a strong central rule between 1250 and 1200 BC , which was probably from Mycenae.

Sources

Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Thomas W. Allen (ed.). Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920.
Homer. The Odyssey with an English Translation by Augustus Taber Murray, PH.D. In two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.

Homérosz: Iliász. Odüsszeia. Homéroszi költemények.
(Ford.): DEVECSERI Gábor. Budapest, Magyar Helikon Kiadó, 1967. (Lásd: Iliás és Odysseia.)

Internet

https://www.ancient.eu/article/147/the-battle-of-kadesh–the-poem-of-pentaur/
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection\_online/collection\_object\_details.aspx?objectId=139810&part
Id =1&=1 \& place =35484&=35484 \& plaA =35484−3−1&=35484-3-1 \& page =18=18
http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm
http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm
http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm
http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/sea.htm

Bibliography

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BIETAK, Manfred: The Thutmose Stronghold of Perunefer.
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BORCHHARDT, Jürgen: Homerische Helme. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein. 1972.
BROUWERS, Josho: „Henchmen of Ares: Warriors and Warfare in Early Greece".
Karwansaray Publishers, Rotterdam. 2013.
BRYCE, Trevor R.: The Lukka Problem-and a Possible Solution.
In: Journal of Hellenic Studies 33. 1974. 395-404.
BRYCE, Trevor R.: The Trojan War: Is There Truth behind the Legend?
In: Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 65, No. 3. (Sep., 2002), 182-195.
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CLINE, Eric (editor): The Oxford Handbook of The Bronze Age Aegean.
Oxford University Press, New York. 2010, 309-310.
D’AMATO, Raffaele - SALIMBETI, Andrea: Bronzkori görög harcosok. I.e. 1600-1100.
(Ford.: Tamás Gáspár.) Delta Vision Kft., Budapest. 2012.
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c. 1400 BC-1000 BC. Ospray Publishing Ltd., Oxford. 2015.

DOTHAN, Trude: The Philistines and their Material Culture. Jerusalem. 1982. 252-288.
DREWS, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 1993, 174.; 178.; 192-193.; 203-204.

FISCHER Endre: A mykenai királyság bukása és a dórvándorlás. In: Antik Hungaria 1. Budapest. 1947, 16-19.
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The Anchor Bible Dictionary V. Doublday/Garden City. 1995. 1059-1061.

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The Anchor Bible Dictionary V. Doublday/Garden City. 1995. 577.
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The Anchor Bible Dictionary VI. Doublday/Garden City. 1995. 695-721.
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GRGURIC, Nicolas - McBRIDE, Angus: The Mycenaeans: C. 1650-1100 BC. Ospray Publishing Ltd., Oxford. 2005.

GÜTERBOCK, Hans G.: The Hittites and the Aegean World: Part 1. The Ahhiyawa Problem Reconsidered. In: American Journal of Archaeology 87. 1981. 133-143.

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Pictures references

Illustration 1.

Illustration 1a.

Illustration 2.
Illustration 2a.; 2b.; 2c.
Illustration 3.

Illustration 3a.

Illustration 4.

Illustration 4a.

Illustration 5.

Illustration 6.

Illustration 6a.

Illustration 6b.

Illustration 6c.

Illustration 7.

A Mycenaean warrior incised on a vessel from the Hittite capital Hattusa (Boğazköy - ca. 1350 BC - Cf. Kelder 2010, 41.)

Giorgio Albertini’s reconstruction drawing
(Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets2.htm )

The Mycenaean Warrior Vase (ca. 1200 BC)
Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets3.htm
Left side: A detail of a papyrus fragment from Tell el-Amarna, possibly showing a Mycenaean warrior (courtesy Trustees of the British Museum). (Cf. Kelder 2010, 42.) Right side: Mycenea, Tiryns and Pylos fresco fragment depicting a later period warrior with a round shild. Since the exact position and length of his weapon can only be guessed at, it is difficult to know whether he is a javelinman or a spearman, although the presence of a shield makes the latter more likely (cf. Grguric - McBride 2005, 17.)

Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour2.htm
The long text has written in vertical columns is a detail of the Poem of Pentaur by Ramesses II engraved on the walls of his temples. The text is about Qades’s battle (detail). (Cf. Siliotti, Alberto: Egyiptom. Templom, Istenek, Fáraók. (Ford.): Varga Edith. Tipografia Canale, Torino. Officin. 1996, 46. 46. kép.). The poem shows in the representations of the image, that the „Sherdens" wear gurpi.

The long text has written in vertical columns is a detail of the Poem of Pentaur by Ramesses II engraved on the walls of his temples. The text is about Qades’s battle (detail). - (Cf. Siliotti, Alberto: Egyiptom. Templom, Istenek, Fáraók. (Ford.): Varga Edith. Tipografia Canale, Torino. Officin. 1996, 46. 46. kép.)

The helmets find their closest parallel in the boar-tusk helmet from a tomb at Dendra (near Midea) (see also illustration 1., 2. and 3.).
(Cf. Kelder 2010, 41-42.)

Reconstruction of the Late Helladic Greek armament (based on various findings of Cretan and Greek).
(Cf. Hahn István (szerk.): A hadművészet ókori klasszikusai. Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó. Budapest. 1963, 424.)

The Achaeans armour. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm )
The cuirassa armour. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm )
The cuirassa armour with chest/back plates, full bronze armours.
(Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/sea.htm )
As already mentioned in page dedicated to the corselet, the defence represented in this krater fragment from Tiryns dated LH IIIC could be also interpreted as „Kiton" made of several layer of fabric, reinforced on upper and lower part with metal elements or scale. This could be a very primitive type of the „Linothorax" defensive equipment often reinforced by metal scale which was later used by the Hoplites during the Classical time period. The charioteer is also equipped with a very large belt. Based on the Tiryns representation a possible reconstruction of a such linen defence with scale reinforcements on shoulders, torso, lower abdomen area and relevant belt can be thus assumed. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm )

Illustration 7a.

Illustration 7b.

Illustration 7c.

Illustration 8.

Illustration 8b.

Illustration 9.

Illustration 10.

Illustration 11.

Illustration 12.

Agamemnon’s helmet. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm )
Achilles’ old helmet. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm )
Achilles’ new helmet. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/helmets4.htm )
A bronze scale dated LH IIIC (about 1200 BC) dimension about 21 mm large and 51 mm long has been found in Mycenae. Even if the scholars believed that this element was part of an Oriental imported defence is indeed a proof that similar cuirass were well known and utilized in the Achaeans mainland. Similar example of bronze scale have been probably also found in Pylos and Crete, even if the interpretation as cuirass’ scales for the two small metallic plates found in Phaistos is still questionable. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm )

Recently a very important discovery has been found in the excavation at the site of Kanakia, on the south-western tip of Salamina island. Together tools, Cypriot pottery and bronzes a single bronze scale from an armour breastplate was found.
This remarkable element bears the stamp of the famous Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II who ruled Egypt during the 13th century BC. This is a possible evidence that Salamina warriors had fought as mercenaries in the army of Ramesses II. (Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm )

In the important Achaeans settlement of Cyprus together weapons, bronze objects and shield bosses, a bronze scale 61 mm long has also been found. This element dated LH IIIC is from Pyla-Kokkinokremos.
(Cf. http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour3.htm )
1Sam 17 of the Biblical Old Testament - The reconstruction drawing was made by Károly Pallanki

Naval engagement on the Lokris coast.
1-2) Lokris warriors, 3) Sea-people warrior and 4) Ahhiyawa, Sea-people officer. (Cf. D’Amato - Salimbeti 2012, 55.)

Warriors of the Late Achaean period. (Cf. D’Amato - Salimbeti 2012, 41.)
The „lobster corselet". (Cf. http://i.imgur.com/KmIyM.jpg )