Why do adult dogs ‘play’? (original) (raw)
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An experimental study of the effects of play upon the dog–human relationship
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2002
It has often been suggested that intraspeci®c dominance relationships are established through play. By analogy, it is also claimed that the outcome of competitive games can affect dog±human relationships. This paper experimentally tests the latter idea. Fourteen Golden Retrievers were each subjected to two treatments; 20 sessions of a tug-of-war game with the experimenter which they were allowed to win, and 20 sessions which they lost. Their relationship with the experimenter was assessed, via a composite behavioural test, once at the outset and once after each treatment. Principal components analysis allowed the 52 behavioural measures to be combined into nine underlying factors. Con®dence (the factor most closely corresponding to conventional dominance) was unaffected by the treatments. Dogs scored higher for obedient attentiveness after play treatments, irrespective of whether they won or lost, and demandingness scores increased with familiarity of the test person. The 10 most playful dogs scored signi®cantly higher for playful attention seeking after winning than after losing. We conclude that, in this population, dominance dimensions of the dog±human relationship are unaffected by the outcome of repetitive tug-of-war games. However, we suggest that the effects of games may be modi®ed by the presence of play signals, and when these signals are absent or misinterpreted the outcome of games may have more serious consequences. Games may also assume greater signi®cance for a minority of``potentially dominant'' dogs. #
Playing styles and possible causative factors in dogs’ behaviour when playing with humans
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2008
Individual differences and causative factors could modify the behaviour of dogs in object related games played with a human partner. In a two-by-two within-subject design we observed 68 family dogs' behaviour when playing two different types of games (ball game and tugging) with two different play partners (owner or unfamiliar experimenter) in order to categorize each dog's playing style. In all four conditions we have measured the following behavioural variables: tendency for possession, willingness to retrieve, behaviours related to fear/avoidance and aggression, and occurrence of play bows. We also calculated the relative duration of time when the dogs oriented ''outwards'' from the play situation to the other non-interacting person (owner or experimenter) during a session. Than we examined the effect of six factors on dog-human play behaviour: the familiarity of the play partner, the type of the game, the dogs' gender, age and breed, and the duration of daily active interaction between dog and owner. We used factor analysis to unfold the relationship among the recorded variables and revealed three factors that accounted for 63% of the total variance. On Factor 1 variables measured in tugging with both the experimenter and owner had high loadings (labelled ''Motivation for tugging''). Factor 2 contained all variables measuring fear and avoidance (Fear/Avoidance), and Factor 3 consisted of variables measured in ball game (Motivation for ball game). The cluster analysis of the dogs' individual factor scores classified them into 5 significantly different groups on the basis of their tendency to be involved in playing with a ball, a rag and to show fear/avoidance during the tests. Moreover, the gender (but not the age or breed) of the dogs and the duration of the daily active interaction with the owner had significant effects on the distribution of dogs between the cluster groups. These results suggest that in play situations the behaviour of well socialized family dogs is influenced more by their motivation to play and to a certain extent by the level of
Links Between Play and Dominance and Attachment Dimensions of Dog-Human Relationships
Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 2003
It is often claimed that certain behavioral problems in domestic dogs can be triggered by the games played by dog and caregiver (owner). In this study, we examine possible links between the types of games played and dimensions of the dog-owner relationship that are generally considered to affect such problems. Fifty dog-owner partnerships were filmed during 3-min play sessions in which the owner was allowed to choose the games played. All partnerships then undertook a 1-hr test designed to measure elements of behavior commonly ascribed to "dominance" and "attachment." Principal components analysis of the data produced 2 dominance-related factors (Amenability and Confident Interactivity) and 4 factors describing aspects of attachment (Nonspecific Attention Seeking, Preference for Owner, Preference for Unfamiliar Person, and Separation-Related Behavior). Amenability, in particular, varied significantly between breeds. In the study, we then compared types of games played to each of these factors. Dogs playing rough-and-tumble scored higher for Amenability and lower on Separation-Related Behavior than did dogs playing other types of games. Dogs playing tug-of-war and fetch scored high on Confident Interactivity. Winning or losing these games had no consistent effect on their test scores. If the dog started the majority of the games, the dog was significantly less amenable and more likely to exhibit aggression. The results suggest that how dogs play reflects general attributes of their temperament and relationship with their owner. This study provides no evidence that games play a major deterministic role on dominance dimensions of dog-human relationships, but the results suggest that playing games involving considerable body contact may affect attachment dimensions.
Cooperation and competition during dyadic play in domestic dogs, Canis familiaris
Animal Behavior , 2007
Social play involves a dynamic combination of competition and cooperation, yet few studies have systematically evaluated the cooperative side of play. We studied dyadic play in domestic dogs to investigate factors influencing variation in cooperative play strategies like self-handicapping and role reversal. Dyadic play bouts were videotaped and coded for asymmetric behaviours. We predicted that variation in play style would reflect salient aspects of the canine social system, including dominance relationships and age and size differences, but not sex differences. Our results refute the 50:50 rule proposed by some researchers, which asserts that participants must equalize their behaviour to maintain a playful atmosphere. We observed divergence from 50:50 symmetry to varying degrees across dyads. This variability was especially linked to dominance and age advantages, such that higher-ranking and/or older dogs generally showed higher proportions of attacks and pursuits and lower proportions of self-handicapping than their disadvantaged play partners. These results contradict the notion that more advantaged individuals consistently relinquish their advantage to facilitate play. Role reversals did occur, but certain social conventions apparently dictated which behaviours could be used during role reversals. For example, role reversals occurred during chases and tackles, but never during mounts, muzzle bites or muzzle licks, suggesting that these latter behaviours may be invariant indicators of formal dominance during play in domestic dogs. Play signalling was linked to self-handicapping behaviour but not to attack/pursuit behaviour, indicating that perhaps self-handicapping and play signalling work together to communicate playful intent and reinforce existing roles.
Animal Behaviour, 2008
We videotaped behaviour in four litters of domestic dogs to explore social play and the development of relationships within litters. We collected data when the puppies were between 3 and 40 weeks of age, but collection times varied by litter. We divided data analysis into three time periods to coincide approximately with critical periods in the early social development of dogs. Early play-partner preferences were associated with preferences in later time periods, and the tendency for puppies to prefer specific partners increased over time. Play did not conform to 50e50 symmetry of roles between partners, which some researchers claim is necessary to sustain play. In the later juvenile period (time 3), dogs who engaged in high rates of offense behaviours (e.g. chasing, forcing partners down) also initiated play at higher rates, implying that winning during play may become more important as puppies mature. Self-handicapping behaviours were positively associated with play signalling, suggesting that, like play signals, self-handicapping may function to indicate playful intent. In mixed-sex dyads, males initiated play, engaged in offense behaviours, and self-handicapped more than females. Females were more likely to initiate with females across all time periods, but males were more likely to initiate with males only in time 3. We discuss results from mixed-and same-sex interactions with reference to inter-and intrasexual competition. The types of offense and self-handicapping behaviours displayed were similar across litters, suggesting that the expression of these behaviours may follow a similar ontogeny in puppies in general.
Do dogs respond to play signals given by humans
Animal Behaviour, 2001
Play signals are known to function in the solicitation and maintenance of intraspecific play, but their role in interspecific play is relatively unstudied. We carried out two studies to examine interspecific signalling when humans play with domestic dogs, Canis familiaris. In the first, we recorded dog-owner play sessions on video to identify actions used by 21 dog owners to initiate play with their dogs. Thirty-five actions were each used by three or more owners. These included postures, vocalizations and physical contact with the dog. The actions varied greatly in their apparent success at instigating play which was, surprisingly, unrelated to the frequency with which they were used. We then did an experiment to determine the effect of composites of commonly used signals upon the behaviour of 20 Labrador retrievers. The performance of both 'Bow' and 'Lunge' by a human altered the subsequent behaviour of the dogs. Both signals caused increases in play, and Lunge produced significant increases in play bout frequency and mean bout duration. The efficiency of both these postural signals was enhanced when they were accompanied by play vocalizations. Thus, specific actions used by humans do communicate a playful context to dogs and can be described as interspecific play signals.
The Effects of Familiarity on Dog-Human Play
Anthrozoös, 1990
Examined the activities of familiar (F) and unfamiliar (UF) players to discern whether shared history affected the organization and maintenance of play between dogs and people. 24 dogs and 24 people (aged 15–60 yrs) engaged in 48 play interactions (24 between F and 24 between UF players), which were videotaped and coded for actions, projects, routines, and enticements. F players played more frequently than UF players. Familiarity influenced the frequency and duration of projects and the time and frequency of routines. Enactment of enticements was equal or more frequent for F players, but F players generated fewer enticements than did the UF players.
Catch Me If You Can!: A Qualitative Inquiry into the Characteristics of Human-Canine Play
Defining the interactive and subjective elements responsible for canine well-being are routinely missed in the literature. Since the human-animal bond is known to influence health and well-being factors in both participants, this study focused on describing and understanding the elements within positive play between guardians and their canine companions. Through ethnographic methods, data analysis revealed five major themes present in play. Those of behavior, emotional expression, personality, motives, and self-awareness, which are inter-dependent and show the foundations for fostering I-Thou experiences.
Down but not out: Supine postures as facilitators of play in domestic dogs
tWe used two sets of videotaped data of playing domestic dog dyads to determine whether rolling overduring play served as a signal of submission or whether it was a combat maneuver adopted as part ofan ongoing play sequence. Our results provide strong support for the latter. In the absence of any overtindication of agonism, the frequency with which rollovers occurred was determined primarily by playbout length. The discrepancy in partner size had no effect on the probability that rollovers would occurand there was no evidence that smaller dogs were more likely to rollover or to sustain a supine posturefor longer, if they did. The supine phase of rollovers was significantly skewed to short durations. Mostrollovers were either defensive (evading a nape bite) or offensive (launching an attack). None could becategorized as submissive. We conclude that asymmetries in the performance of rollovers cannot be assumed to point to asymmetries in the relationships between play partners.
Social play is known as a cooperative interaction between individuals involving multiple mechanisms. However, the extent to which the equality of individuals' play styles affects the interaction has not been studied in many species. Dyadic play between wolf puppies, as well as between puppies and adults, was studied to investigate both self-handicapping and offensive behaviors to determine the extent to which wolves engage in play styles where one individual does not dominate the play. Our results did not support the hypothesized '50:50' rule, which suggests that more advantaged individuals should show higher rates of self-handicapping behaviors in order to facilitate play with others. Adult wolves performed significantly less self-handicapping behaviors than their puppy partners, and they performed significantly more offensive behaviors than their puppy partners. While the '50:50' rule was not supported at any time during our study period, dyads consisting of two puppies had significantly more equal play than dyads consisting of one puppy and one adult. These results suggest that wolf puppies are more likely to play on equal terms with similarly-aged play partners, while the dominance status of the partners dictates offensive and selfhandicapping behaviors between animals of different ages.