Aux origines de la nouvelle Ostpolitik du Saint-Siège. La première tentative de Jean XXIII pour reprendre le contact avec les évêques hongrois en 1959 (original) (raw)
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Les Franciscains observants hongrois, de l'expansion à la débâcle (v.1450-v.1540)
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This book presents (in French) the results of an investigation carried out by the candidate during the preparation of her application for the qualification to supervise research. She wanted to understand why Observant Franciscans, who met with great success in Hungary in the second half of the fifteenth century, experienced after 1510 a disaffection barely less spectacular, and which already threatened them with extinction before 1541. In the existing scholarship, mostly Hungarian, this reversal was solely blamed on two external causes: Ottoman destructions and the progress of Protestantism. To go further, the candidate devoted herself to ‘the autopsy of a crisis’ (A. Molnár). The sources that were analysed to this end (papal bulls, royal charters and a few documents internal to the order, amongst which, beside an Observant chronicle edited but underexploited, were two formula books that had been ignored by scholars until now) revealed four phases in the history of Observant Franciscans in Hungary. The years 1450 to 1490 were the time of the beginning and development of the Observant reform. Its success was remarkable on every level: geographically (expanding beyond Slavonia and the southern regions of the Hungarian kingdom where it first appeared), quantitatively (surpassing the other regular communities) and spiritually (thanks to a number of prominent personalities such as Pelbart de Temesvár and Oswald de Laskó). The initial impulse did not come from the laity, who had nothing to complain about the ‘Conventual’ friars, but from the papacy, keen to implement the reforms prescribed since the previous century. James of the Marches and John of Capistrano, leaders of the Italian Observance, were sent to Hungary. King Mathias Corvin (1458-1490) and Hungarian aristocrats followed suit, aiming to federate energies and means against the Turks, the ‘schismatic’ Eastern Christians and the heretics. The choice made by the Hungarian Observants, established as an independent Vicarate in 1448, to cut ties with the ‘Cismontane family’ as early as 1458, to depend directly from the order’s Minister General, reveals their willingness to give the movement a direction agreeing with the local social and economic environment, characterized by the support of the nobility (rather than of the bourgeoisie) to their friaries. They slowly gave the Hungarian Observance a more moderate tone, moving away from radical poverty and leaving little room for lay brothers, Poor Clares and communities of the Third-Order. The very end of the fifteenth century corresponds to the height of Franciscan Observance’s influence in the Magyar Kingdom. With seventy friaries (about 1700 friars) and a more efficient administration, the reformed order also eventually met with great popular success. Perhaps was it due to the compromise the Hungarian’s friars had been able to found between the rigor of their origins, the specificity of the Hungarian context and their own spiritual expectations and that of their audience – attached for the most to a vision of the Faith based on the « good works». The pope took advantage of the Observants’ hold over Hungarian Christians: he made them his spokesmen in the attempt to revive the Anti-Ottoman Crusade and in the promotion of the coming jubilees for St Peter’s reconstruction. The wave of protest, with a hint of eschatology and prophecy, that denounced the corruption of the papal court and the faults of the high clergy throughout Western Christendom reached Hungary at the exact moment when, around 1510, the Observants’ zeal was winding down and they were seen as no more than Roman tax officials. The great Jacquerie of 1514 revealed the scale of the dissent within the Hungarian province. To everyone’s astonishment, some Observant friars supported the insurgents in their crusade and fought by their side a merciless war against lords and anybody representing the established order, whom they likened to henchmen of the Antichrist. Far from just a handful of troublemakers, as provincials leaders tried to pretend, the rebellion mirrored the uneasiness of the friars, beset by doubt in view of the tepidity of their superiors and fellow religious. The latter suppressed the movement harshly, and made no changes to their prescriptions and practices, neither regarding regular life, nor individual salvation. The Franciscan Observance had just only managed to get through this traumatic episode when it came face to face with dangers directly threatening its survival: the destruction of friaries by Turkish invaders (who had won at Mohács in 1526) and by Christian enemies for the needs of war, the spread of the Protestant Reform and the expulsions that followed, as well as the economic downturn, affecting the number of gifts. Friars began publicly breaching their commitments, speeding up the collapse of vocations, while others were listening with attention to the Lutheran ideas coming from German-speaking towns. The chiefs of the Hungarian Observant Franciscan Province delayed as long as they could the closing of the friaries most exposed to the violence of armed troops, and ended up regrouping to the north and the east of the kingdom, with their archives. But they were not able to prevent a growing number of friars, poorly armed theologically, to join the Reformation after 1541. The history of the Observant Franciscans in Hungary serves to illustrate the capacity of Latin Christianity to take on various local incarnations towards the end of the Middle Ages, even within orders as centralised and close to the papacy as the mendicants, and within Central Europe. It highlights the originality of the Hungarian Observance – more pragmatic than heroic, despite its participation to the ideological elaboration of the ‘late crusades’ -, confirming the diversity of the Observant movement at the end of the Middle Ages, which Kaspar Elm and his followers had already noted about France, Germany and Mediterranean countries. Less expectedly, this study also revealed the strong impact of the Observance on the Conventuals, leading them to reform too. Finally, it throws light on a crucial moment of Franciscan history and of Eastern Christendom.