Lead in Archeological Human Bones Reflecting Historical Changes in Lead Production (original) (raw)
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American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1981
Measurements of skeletal-lead content (by atomic absorption spectroscopy) were made for 16 individuals recovered from a Colonial (1670–1730) plantation cemetery in Virginia. Archaeological and historical evidence allowed the identification of two social groups (plantation proprietors and laborers) within this small population, each with vastly different estimated lifetime lead exposure, reflecting different living conditions. Measured bone-lead levels confirmed these differences. The character of plantation social organization proved a more important determinant of skeletal-lead content in the individuals studied than age, sex, or race.
Science of The Total Environment, 1998
The preservation of lead within human tissue makes it possible to monitor long-term exposure to the element and to model changing sources of lead pollution throughout the lifetime of an individual. Dental tissues have recently been shown to be particularly useful for this purpose. Enamel, for instance, forms at known stages of life and is chemically stable in vivo whereas dentine is remodelled in a predictable fashion. The relative stability of enamel is reflected in its excellent post-mortem preservation. This raises the possibility of using historical or archaeological material to reconstruct long-term trends and establish baseline data relating to exposure among pre-industrial or even prehistoric populations. The use of archaeological material is currently problematic, however, because of the site-specific nature of diagenesis and incomplete understanding of its chemistry, particularly in respect of lead uptake into dental tissue from the burial environment. A detailed study of lead distribution within both ancient and modern human teeth is presented. Conclusions are drawn on the pattern of lead distribution resulting from tissue formation and the manner of its alteration in the burial environment. In particular, attention is drawn to a consistent enrichment of lead within the outer 30 m of the enamel of both ancient and modern teeth which appears to be unrelated to diagenesis. The implications for current approaches to long-term monitoring and for the reconstruction of historical and archaeological exposure patterns are discussed.
Human lead exposure in England from approximately 5500 bp to the 16th century ad
Science of The Total Environment, 2004
Lead concentration and isotope ratio data are presented for the tooth enamel of 77 individuals buried in England and spanning approximately 5000 years from the Neolithic until the 16th century AD. Whereas other tissues may be affected by diagenesis in the burial environment, the Pb concentration of tooth enamel is directly related to childhood exposure. This record is preserved post-mortem and over archaeological time. Tooth enamel Pb concentrations in the prehistoric period appear to be variable within the range 0.04 to ;0.4 ppm, with occasional higher levels. The Romano-British and medieval periods show a marked increase in Pb exposures with enamel concentrations reaching up to approximately 40 ppm. These exposures would today be associated with industrial pollution. Exposures appear to be highly variable compared with modern people, however, with many medieval individuals having very low enamel Pb concentrations comparable with prehistoric people. Lead isotope data refine this picture. We distinguish between the diverse isotopic ratios we believe to be characteristic of 'natural' exposure to Pb-from geological sources via the diet-and the much narrower isotopic range characteristic of exposure to technological Pb from ore sources. Taken together the data suggest that the maximum concentrations associated with 'non-technological' exposure at any period are ;0.5-1.0 ppm, similar to that reported for modern people in England.
Human lead exposure in England from approximately 5500 to the 16th century
The Science of the Total …, 2004
Lead concentration and isotope ratio data are presented for the tooth enamel of 77 individuals buried in England and spanning approximately 5000 years from the Neolithic until the 16th century AD. Whereas other tissues may be affected by diagenesis in the burial environment, the Pb concentration of tooth enamel is directly related to childhood exposure. This record is preserved post-mortem and over archaeological time. Tooth enamel Pb concentrations in the prehistoric period appear to be variable within the range 0.04 to ;0.4 ppm, with occasional higher levels. The Romano-British and medieval periods show a marked increase in Pb exposures with enamel concentrations reaching up to approximately 40 ppm. These exposures would today be associated with industrial pollution. Exposures appear to be highly variable compared with modern people, however, with many medieval individuals having very low enamel Pb concentrations comparable with prehistoric people. Lead isotope data refine this picture. We distinguish between the diverse isotopic ratios we believe to be characteristic of 'natural' exposure to Pb-from geological sources via the diet-and the much narrower isotopic range characteristic of exposure to technological Pb from ore sources. Taken together the data suggest that the maximum concentrations associated with 'non-technological' exposure at any period are ;0.5-1.0 ppm, similar to that reported for modern people in England. ᮊ
Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research Section B-beam Interactions With Materials and Atoms, 1999
Pb concentrations in human bone and tooth samples from a 11th century mining community were analysed to study the in¯uence of long-term burial in polluted soils. PIXE and RBS analysis with 20±300 lm proton beams and 300 lm 4 He beams at the University of Freiburg Van de Graa laboratory and less than 5 lm at the University of Melbourne Microanalytical Research Centre was performed and strongly increased Pb levels at outer and inner bone and tooth surfaces were found, reaching more than 1000 ppm in some of the bone samples, and decreasing to equilibrium levels in the order of 5±10 ppm in some non-porous inner sections of the analysed bones and teeth. Ó
Exposure to Cadmium and Lead in an Agropastoral Iron Age Population
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2014
Metals present in the environment (soil, water and atmosphere) can affect food safety and human health through bio-accumulation and bio-magnification phenomena. Human exposure to the metals may take place through the environment and by ingesting contaminated food (including water), determining harmful effects usually detectable over the long term. Starting with the Industrial Revolution, local occurrence and concentration of metallic contaminants in the environment have been exponentially increasing: it has been assessed that, nowadays, daily absorption of lead, by North American people, is noticeably greater than that during prehistoric times. In this study, we measured concentrations of cadmium, lead and zinc in 153 bone samples (femurs) of Iron Age inhabitants of Central Italy (Abruzzo): the Samnites from the Alfedena Necropolis (2600-2400 BP). The data found are in agreement with the results of similar published studies. Heavy metal concentrations varied widely among samples with the exception of zinc. A significant difference (p same Mann-Whitney test <0.05) in cadmium bone levels was found between male (0.08-1.8 mg/kg, median 0.31 mg/kg) and female samples (0.05-1.3 mg/kg, median 0.53 mg/kg).
Death metal: Evidence for the impact of lead poisoning on childhood health within the Roman Empire
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2021
The use of lead was ubiquitous throughout the Roman Empire, including material for water pipes, eating vessels, medicine, and even as a sweetener for wine. The toxicity of lead is well established today, resulting in long-term psychological and neurological deficits as well as metabolic diseases. Children are particularly susceptible to the effects of lead, and it is likely that the widespread use of this deadly metal among Roman populations led to a range of adverse health effects. Indeed, lead poisoning has even been implicated in the downfall of the Roman Empire. This research examines, for the first time, the direct effect of lead poisoning on the inhabitants of the Empire. It explores whether the dramatic increase in lead during this period contributed to the failure to thrive evident within the skeletal remains of Roman children. Lead concentration and paleopathological analyses were used to explore the association between lead burdens and health during the Roman period. This study includes 173 individuals (66 adults and 107 non-adults) from five sites, AD 1st-4th centuries, located throughout the Roman Empire. Results show a negative correlation between age-at-death and core tooth enamel lead concentrations. Furthermore, higher lead concentrations were observed in children with skeletal evidence of metabolic disease than those without. This study provides the first bioarcheological evidence that lead poisoning was a contributing factor to the high infant mortality and childhood morbidity rates seen within the Roman world. K E Y W O R D S bioarcheology, ICP-MS, infant mortality, lead concentrations, tooth enamel 1 | INTRODUCTION Few historical subjects evoke more fervent debate than what brought about the fall of the Roman Empire. For centuries, scholars have put forth arguments for a plethora of singular causes for its decline, positing everything from the conversion to Christianity, to environmental catastrophe in the wake of a volcanic eruption (Gilfillian, 1990; Harper, 2017). It is, however, the notion that lead poisoning was a key contributing factor behind its decline that has captured the interest of scholars and general enthusiasts alike. The urban myth-like quality of this theory has ensured its endurance. Historical texts describe a range of maladies associated with lead poisoning, affirming that Roman populations did indeed suffer the deleterious effects of lead
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1995
A previous analysis of Omaha skeletons dating between A.D. 1780 and 1820 revealed the presence of lead in all skeletons with high concentrations in children and adult males (Reinhard and Ghazi [1992] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 89: 183-195). Two likely explanations for the high lead levels were presented: 1) metabolic absorption of lead and 2) diagenetic uptake of lead by the bones from postmortem application of pigments to the corpse. Two types of lead were available to the Omaha tribe: 1) Mississippi Valley type, and 2) non-Mississippi Valley type. It has been suggested that red-lead pigment mixed with mercury sulfide (cinnabar) applied to the corpse may have been one of the sources of lead found in bones. Further isotopic analyses of samples of pigment and metallic lead artifacts associated with the skeletons revealed that non-Mississippi Valley type lead is present in the pigment while Mississippi Valley type lead comes from metallic artifacts. Both lead and mercury were found in the pigment samples, verifying that a lead-based pigment mixed with cinnabar-based pigment was used as a cosmetic by the Omaha. Isotopic analysis of lead in skeletons indicates that the pigment contributed most to lead content of bone. This new evidence clarifies the previous study and suggests specific mechanisms by which lead became incorporated into bone.
Bone lead in the prehistoric population of Gran Canaria
American Journal of Human Biology, 1999
The present study determined the lead concentration in bone tissue from 40 prehistoric individuals of Gran Canaria, and in a sample of 19 modern day residents of the Canary Islands. Higher bone lead values were observed in the modern sample (18.65 ± 12.13 g/g dry bone tissue) than in the ancient sample (4.41 ± 3.45 g/g dry bone tissue, P < 0.001). Older individuals showed higher bone lead values than younger individuals, but only in the modern group. The correlation between age and bone lead approached statistical significance (P ס 0.058). Low bone lead observed in the prehistoric sample suggests a low lead exposure in prehispanic times in Gran Canaria.