Conformity to masculine norms and its effects on men’s well-being (original) (raw)
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American journal of men's health, 2018
The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) is a widely used multidimensional scale. Studies using the CMNI most often report only total scale scores, which are predominantly associated with negative outcomes. Various studies since the CMNI's inception in 2003 using subscales have reported both positive and negative outcomes. The current content analysis examined studies ( N = 17) correlating the 11 subscales with 63 criterion variables across 7 categories. Most findings were consistent with past research using total scale scores that reported negative outcomes. For example, conformity to masculine norms has been inversely related to help-seeking and positively correlated with concerning health variables, such as substance use. Nonetheless, past reliance on total scores has obscured the complexity of associations with the CMNI in that 30% of the findings in the present study reflected positive outcomes, particularly for health promotion. Subscales differed in their relati...
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 2016
Despite theoretical postulations that individuals' conformity to masculine norms is differentially related to mental health-related outcomes depending on a variety of contexts, there has not been any systematic synthesis of the empirical research on this topic. Therefore, the authors of this study conducted meta-analyses of the relationships between conformity to masculine norms (as measured by the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-94 and other versions of this scale) and mental health-related outcomes using 78 samples and 19,453 participants. Conformity to masculine norms was modestly and unfavorably associated with mental health as well as moderately and unfavorably related to psychological help seeking. The authors also identified several moderation effects. Conformity to masculine norms was more strongly correlated with negative social functioning than with psychological indicators of negative mental health. Conformity to the specific masculine norms of self-reliance, power over women, and playboy were unfavorably, robustly, and consistently related to mental health-related outcomes, whereas conformity to the masculine norm of primacy of work was not significantly related to any mental health-related outcome. These findings highlight the need for researchers to disaggregate the generic construct of conformity to masculine norms and to focus instead on specific dimensions of masculine norms and their differential associations with other outcomes. Public Significance Statement This study synthesized findings from 19,453 participants across 78 samples regarding the relationships between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. In general, individuals who conformed strongly to masculine norms tended to have poorer mental health and less favorable attitudes toward seeking psychological help, although the results differed depending on specific types of masculine norms.
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2003
One aim of this study was to further investigate the empirical support for the social constructionist perspective on gender roles. A 2nd aim was to explore the relationship between Russian men's endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and their engagement in behaviors that may put their health at risk. Russian respondents endorsed traditional masculinity ideology, developed for a U.S. sample, to a higher degree than did their American counterparts. Overall, women endorsed a less traditional perspective of masculinity ideology for men; however, this result was more pronounced among U.S. participants. Using a modification of the Susceptibility to Stress Scale
Psychol Men Masculinity, 2003
One aim of this study was to further investigate the empirical support for the social constructionist perspective on gender roles. A 2nd aim was to explore the relationship between Russian men's endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and their engagement in behaviors that may put their health at risk. Russian respondents endorsed traditional masculinity ideology, developed for a U.S. sample, to a higher degree than did their American counterparts. Overall, women endorsed a less traditional perspective of masculinity ideology for men; however, this result was more pronounced among U.S. participants. Using a modification of the Susceptibility to Stress Scale (L. H. Miller, A. D. Smith, & B. L. Mehler, 1988), results yielded 1 variable associated with unhealthy lifestyle habits among Russian men: lower socioeconomic status.
Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2003
This article describes the construction of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), and 5 studies that examined its psychometric properties. Factor analysis indicated 11 distinct factors: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power Over Women, Disdain for Homosexuals, and Pursuit of Status. Results from Studies 2-5 indicated that the CMNI had strong internal consistency estimates and good differential validity comparing men with women and groups of men on healthrelated questions; all of the CMNI subscales were significantly and positively related to other masculinity-related measures, with several subscales being related significantly and positively to psychological distress, social dominance, aggression, and the desire to be more muscular, and significantly and negatively to attitudes toward psychological help seeking and social desirability; and CMNI scores had high test-retest estimates for a 2-3 week period.
The male gender role and men’s psychological distress: A review
Social Psychological Review
This review examines the psychological research surrounding masculinity and the attendant concepts relating to the male gender role. Its specific focus is within what has been called the ‘social learning paradigm’ (Addis & Cohane, 2005, p.637). The social learning paradigm is consistent with a social constructionist approach in that it views human behaviour as not arising from innate essentialist traits, but instead as being influenced and constructed by the interaction between the environment and the individual’s own cognitions and behaviour (Bandura & Walters, 1963). However, the review notes that there is disagreement and debate surrounding the social learning paradigm’s relationship to the social constructionist view of masculinity and so also details the social constructionist view in order to highlight this. It gives an outline of some of the theoretical views and the pertaining measures that have been designed to research masculinity and the male gender role, and also focuses...
Masculinity and Men's Mental Health
Journal of American College Health, 2001
ow are men and women different from each other? How do these differences affect their health? At the most elementary level, these age-old questions seem logical to ask and relatively simple to answer. The differences between biologically determined categories of male and female are apparent. To some, these structural differences account for how the sexes become susceptible to certain diseases and illnesses, as well as for the dramatic differences in the longevity of men and women. However, as has been demonstrated elsewhere, health is much more complicated than biological processes. Physical health is embedded in a complex system of interactions among biological factors and psychosocial processes that have been shown to have enormous reciprocal effects. As medicine has expanded its focus beyond exclusive emphasis on physiological structure, it has been forced to embrace a more complex conceptualization of the differences between women and men. Although it is frequently useful to think of the differences in terms of biological sex, it has recently become clear that the most productive avenues of investigation are those that study women and men in terms of gender. When people use the term sex, they are limited to considerations of biological mechanisms. When they use the term gender, however, they can broaden their focus into analysis of social, cultural, and psychological issues that pertain to the traits, norms, stereotypes, and roles of women and men. Articles on aspects of men's health published in the May 2000 and subsequent issues of the Journal of American College Health in the series Emerging Issues in College Health exemplify this effort to understand how the male gender
to be written General Discussion on the Reports, including the 4 Thematic Areas 2.3.1 Home and Work. Recurring themes include men's occupational, working and wage advantages over women, gender segregation at work, many men's close associations with paid work, men in nontraditional occupations. There has been a general lack of attention to men as managers, policy-makers, owners and other power holders. In many countries there are a twin problems of the unemployment of some or many men in certain social categories, and yet workoverload and long working hours for other men. These can especially be a problem for young men and young fathers; they can affect both working class and middle class men as for example during 1. What are the main causes of male violence against women, including authoritarian social contexts, patriarchal privilege, structural violence, and violence between men? 5. How can an active gender policy be renewed and improved, especially in terms of men's participation?