Stress in Children (original) (raw)
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Stress and disorders of the stress system
Nature reviews. Endocrinology, 2009
All organisms must maintain a complex dynamic equilibrium, or homeostasis, which is constantly challenged by internal or external adverse forces termed stressors. Stress occurs when homeostasis is threatened or perceived to be so; homeostasis is re-established by various physiological and behavioral adaptive responses. Neuroendocrine hormones have major roles in the regulation of both basal homeostasis and responses to threats, and are involved in the pathogenesis of diseases characterized by dyshomeostasis or cacostasis. The stress response is mediated by the stress system, partly located in the central nervous system and partly in peripheral organs. The central, greatly interconnected effectors of this system include the hypothalamic hormones arginine vasopressin, corticotropin-releasing hormone and pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides, and the locus ceruleus and autonomic norepinephrine centers in the brainstem. Targets of these effectors include the executive and/or cognitive, ...
Weiyang Xiong Stress and the Brain How does stress affect our brain? We all experience stress in our daily lives. When we encounter stressors, our brain's chemical elements will change, in turn affecting the brain's stress response systems. When stress places one's body in a precarious state in which one cannot function properly, one would become extremely vulnerable to disease and illness (Fricchione, 30). The harmful effects of stress could be mitigated if one were to have sufficient external support from family and friends or internal coping mechanisms generated through meditation, healthy diet and regular exercises. In the face of distressing psychological and social stressors, one must expend tremendous energy through one's brain and body to stabilize one's physiologies. Failure to quickly adapt and cope with stressors would result in the impairment of one's brain regions including the hippocampus and the amygdala, leading to severe diseases such as Type II diabetes, depression and PTSD. In order to gain a better understanding of the effects of stressors on different brain regions, one needs to delve deeper into the functions of various brain areas and different roles they play in stress. One's brain plays an active role in maintaining physiological stability "in the face of changing circumstances" in a process called allostasis, the active process of responding to challenges to, and adaptive changes by, an individual (McEwen, 2). The brain adjusts one's stress response systems to accommodate to the increasing demand imposed upon by stress. When the stress becomes too overwhelming or enduring, the brain would find it extremely difficult to maintain energy balance, placing one's health and wellness in jeopardy. Therefore, in the face of severe stressors, the brain's stress response systems notify one's body organs of perceived challenges and threats so the body would have time to react. This system works well under short or acute stress; under chronic stress, however, the brain's depletion in resources would prevent it from meeting the energy demand necessary to adjust the stress 1
Stress physiology and developmental psychopathology: Past, present, and future
Research on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis has emerged as a vital area within the field of developmental psychopathology in the past 25 years. Extensive animal research has provided knowledge of the substrates and physiological mechanisms that guide development of stress reactivity and regulation using methods that are not feasible in humans. Recent advances in understanding the anatomy and physiology of the HPA axis in humans and its interactions with other stress-mediating systems, including accurate assessment of salivary cortisol, more sophisticated neuroimaging methods, and a variety of genetic analyses, have led to greater knowledge of how psychological and biological processes impact functioning. A growing body of research on HPA axis regulation and reactivity in relation to psychopathology has drawn increased focus on the prenatal period, infancy, and the pubertal transition as potentially sensitive periods of stress system development in children. Theories such as the allostatic load model have guided research by integrating multiple physiological systems and mechanisms by which stress can affect mental and physical health. However, almost none of the prominent theoretical models in stress physiology are truly developmental, and future work must incorporate how systems interact with the environment across the life span in normal and atypical development. Our theoretical advancement will depend on our ability to integrate biological and psychological models. Researchers are increasingly realizing the importance of communication across disciplinary boundaries in order to understand how experiences influence neurobehavioral development. It is important that knowledge gained over the past 25 years has been translated to prevention and treatment interventions, and we look forward to the dissemination of interventions that promote recovery from adversity.
Pediatric Stress: From Neuroendocrinology to Contemporary Disorders
European journal of clinical investigation, 2017
Stress is defined as a state of threatened or perceived as threatened homeostasis. A broad spectrum of extrinsic or intrinsic, real or perceived stressful stimuli, called "stressors", activates a highly conserved system, the "stress system", which adjusts homeostasis through central and peripheral neuroendocrine responses. Inadequate, excessive or prolonged adaptive responses to stress may underlie the pathogenesis of several disease states prevalent in modern societies. The development and severity of these conditions primarily depend on the genetic vulnerability of the individual, the exposure to adverse environmental factors and the timing of the stressful event(s), given that prenatal life, infancy, childhood and adolescence are critical periods characterized by increased vulnerability to stressors. We conducted a systematic review of original articles and reviews published in MEDLINE from 1975 through June 2016. The search terms were "childhood stress&q...
Stress, Early Brain Development, and Behavior
Infants & Young Children, 1998
Subject Research has begun to identify the neural circuits, brain structures, and endocrine systems affected by ELS and their role in emergent psychopathology and medical problems. Multidisciplinary research in the areas of risk and resilience, developmental psychopathology, psychoneuroendocrinology, neuroscience, and molecular and behavioural genetics has elucidated factors that increase vulnerability to stressors and those which protect children from their deleterious effects. Understanding the mechanisms through which ELS "gets under the skin" should help us to identify intervention and prevention targets, thus having broad implications for policy and practice. Problems The stress response system involves the sympathetic nervous system, the various neurotransmitter systems, the immune system, and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) axis.
Understanding stress: characteristics and caveats
PubMed, 1999
Exposure to stressful situations is among the most common human experiences. These types of situations can range from unexpected calamities to routine daily annoyances. In response to stressors, a series of behavioral, neurochemical, and immunological changes occur that ought to serve in an adaptive capacity. However, if those systems become overly taxed, the organism may become vulnerable to pathology. Likewise, the biological changes, if sufficiently sustained, may themselves adversely affect the organism's well-being. Several factors may dictate an individual's response to environmental stressors, including characteristics of the stressor (i.e., type of stressor and its controllability, predictability, and chronicity); biological factors (i.e., age, gender, and genetics); and the subject's previous stressor history and early life experiences. Research on the physiological and psychological responses to different types of stressful stimuli is presented, focusing particularly on processes that may be relevant to the development of alcohol use disorders. Stressful events may profoundly influence the use of alcohol or other drugs (AODs). For example, the resumption of AOD use after a lengthy period of abstinence may reflect a person's attempt to self-medicate to attenuate the adverse psychological consequences of stressors (e.g., anxiety). Alternatively, stress may increase the reinforcing effects of AODs.