Sinkholes and uvalas in evaporite karst: spatio-temporal development with links to base-level fall on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea (original) (raw)
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Solid Earth Discussions
The fall of hydrological base-level is long established as a driver of geomorphological change in both fluvial and karst systems, but few natural occurrences occur on timescales suitable for direct observation. Here we document the spatiotemporal development of fluvial and karstic landforms along 20 the eastern coast of the hypersaline Dead Sea (at Ghor al-Haditha, Jordan) during a 50-year period of regional base-level decline from 1967 to 2017. Combining remote sensing data with close-range photogrammetric surveys, we show that the 35 m base-level fall has caused shoreline retreat of up to 2.5 km, and resulted in: (1) incision of new meandering or straight/braided stream channels and (2) formation of >1100 sinkholes and several salt-karst uvalas. Both alluvial incision and karst-related subsidence 25 represent significant hazards to local infrastructure. The development of groundwater-fed meandering stream channels is in places interlinked with that of the sinkholes and uvalas. Moreover, active areas of channel incision and sinkhole development both migrate seaward in time, broadly in tandem with shoreline retreat. Regarding theoretical effects of base-level fall, our observations show some deviations from those predicted for channel geometry, but are remarkably consistent with those for groundwater-30
Evolution of the Dead Sea sinkholes
Special Paper 401: New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, 2006
Over the past several years, the coastal area around the declining Dead Sea has undergone a catastrophic collapse. One of the major expressions of this process is the sudden appearance of hundreds of collapse sinkholes, causing a severe threat to the future of this region. Here we review results and inferences obtained from a multidisciplinary research conducted since 1999. Observations were obtained by geological mapping, aerial photographs, drilling, groundwater geochemistry, seismic refraction and refl ection, and satellite radar interferometry. The suggested model for the formation of the Dead Sea sinkholes is based on the following observations: (1) presence of a thick salt layer (or layers) at depths between 20 and 50 m (depth of layer top), and sandwiched between aquiclude layers of clay and silt; (2) identifi cation of cavities within the salt layer in sinkhole sites; (3) presence of water undersaturated with respect to halite in aquifers confi ned beneath the salt layer; (4) composition of the groundwater in the salt layer that indicates salt dissolution; (5) association between sinkhole sites and land subsidence; and (6) formation of sinkholes along and above buried faults. These observations combine to suggest that the primary cause of sinkhole formation is dissolution of the salt layer by undersaturated groundwater. The interface between the Dead Sea brine and this groundwater migrated eastward due to the Dead Sea decline. Undersaturated water accessed the salt layer via faults that cut through the soft aquiclude layers. The opening of these conduit-faults is likely due to differential compaction of the aquiclude layers, explaining the correlation between the land subsidence and sinkhole sites. It appears that the decline of the Dead Sea level affects the formation of sinkholes in three ways: (1) opening the way to eastward migration of the freshwater-saline interface and thus to undersaturated groundwater, (2) generating differential compaction of fi ne-grained sediments, and (3) destabilization of underground cavities, which catalyzes their collapse.
A B S T R A C T Ground subsidence and sinkhole collapse are phenomena affecting regions of karst geology worldwide. The rapid development of such phenomena around the Dead Sea in the last four decades poses a major geological hazard to the local population, agriculture and industry. Nonetheless many aspects of this hazard are still incompletely described and understood, especially on the eastern Dead Sea shore. In this work, we present a first low altitude (< 150 m above ground) aerial photogrammetric survey with a Helikite Balloon at the sinkhole area of Ghor Al-Haditha, Jordan. We provide a detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis of a new, high resolution digital surface model (5 cm px −1) and orthophoto of this area (2.1 km 2). We also outline the factors affecting the quality and accuracy of this approach. Our analysis reveals a kilometer-scale sinuous depression bound partly by flexure and partly by non-tectonic faults. The estimated minimum volume loss of this subsided zone is 1.83 • 10 6 m 3 with an average subsidence rate of 0.21 m yr −1 over the last 25 years. Sinkholes in the surveyed area are localized mainly within this depression. The sinkholes are commonly elliptically shaped (mean eccentricity 1.31) and clustered (nearest neighbor ratio 0.69). Their morphologies and orientations depend on the type of sediment they form in: in mud, sinkholes have a low depth to diameter ratio (0.14) and a long-axis azimuth of NNE–NE. In alluvium, sinkholes have a higher ratio (0.4) and are orientated NNW–N. From field work, we identify actively evolving artesian springs and channelized, sediment-laden groundwater flows that appear locally in the main depression. Consequently, subrosion, i.e. subsurface mechanical erosion, is identified as a key physical process, in addition to dissolution, behind the subsidence and sinkhole hazard. Furthermore, satellite image analysis links the development of the sinuous depression and sinkhole formation at Ghor Al-Haditha to preferential groundwater flow paths along ancient and current wadi riverbeds.
SN Applied Sciences , 2020
FOR CITATION: Salem, Hilmi S. (2020). Multi-and Inter-Disciplinary Approaches Towards Understanding the Sinkholes' Phenomenon in the Dead Sea Basin, SN Applied Sciences, (2020) 2:667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2146-0\. Springer URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339044303\_Multi-and\_Inter-Disciplinary\_Approaches\_Towards\_Understanding\_the\_Sinkholes'\_Phenomenon\_in\_the\_Dead\_Sea\_Basin\_SN\_Applied\_Sciences\_Springer\_March\_2020/stats ABSTRACT: Over the last few decades, thousands of sinkholes have developed at an increasing pace, with the majority along the western and eastern shores of the Dead Sea. Recent studies indicate that the number of sinkholes in the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) has reached more than 6000; each of them, on average, 1–10 m deep and up to 25–30 m in diameter. These sinkholes can open-up suddenly and swallow whatever exists above them, resulting in an area that looks like an earthquake zone. Sinkholes in the DSB are formed when a subterranean salt layer that once bordered the Dead Sea is dissolved by underground freshwater that follows the migration of the saltwater–freshwater interface, due to receding water level of the Dead Sea. Consequently, large areas of land are subsiding, causing the formation of sinkholes in the region. Also, based on the fact that the Dead Sea’s region is tectonically and seismically active, as being greatly affected by the Dead Sea transform fault system, sinkholes can also be evolved as a result of tectonic and seismic activities. This paper presents multi- and inter-disciplinary approaches towards understanding the occurrence of sinkholes in the DSB, with respect to geomorphology, geology, geophysics, tectonics, seismology, limnology, climatology, biodiversity, and socioeconomics, as well as the steady decline of the Dead Sea’s water level and the continuous shrinkage of its surface area and its water volume, at alarming rates. The occurrence of sinkholes in this region could be attributed to anthropogenic reasons and/or natural reasons. KEYWORDS: Sinkholes · Dead Sea Basin · Water level’s decline · Surface area’s shrinkage · Anthropogenic causes · Naturally induced · Brine and freshwater · Tectonics and seismicity · Transform fault system
Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013
We show that clusters of karst sinkholes can occur on carbonate hypogene karst terrains. Unlike common doline karst of dissolution origin, the studied sinkholes form mainly by sagging and collapse. Thermal survey, OSL dating and morphologic analysis during quarrying and excavations are applied to study the sinkholes at the Ayyalon karst, Israel. The thermal survey shows the spatial pattern of rising warm water plumes, whose temperature is N 2°C warmer than the surrounding aquifer water. These plumes dissolve the limestone, creating large voids and maze caves. Mass wasting forms surface sinkholes mainly by sagging and collapse. Both types of deformation often occur within the same depression. Lack of hydrologic connection between the surface and underground voids constrain drainage and promote rapid accumulation of colluvium, dust and pedogenic clays. These have filled the sinkholes up to their rim before the late Holocene. OSL dating constrains the rate of sediment accumulation within the sinkholes. The average filling rate (thickness divided by elapsed time) is~47 mm ka −1 for the last 53 ± 4 ka in Sinkhole 1, while in Sinkhole 2 ("Nesher Ramla karst depression"), the rate is~61 mm ka −1 from 200 to 78 ka, and~173 mm ka −1 since~78 ka. Between~170 and 78 ka, Sinkhole 2 was intensively used by Middle Paleolithic hominins. The studied sinkholes may be considered as a type locality for hypogene sinkhole terrain on carbonate rocks.
Sinkhole development in the Sivas gypsum karst, Turkey
The extensive gypsum karst of Sivas, Turkey is one of the most outstanding examples of bare gypsum karst in the world. It displays a number of remarkable geomorphic features, including: (1) two stepped planation surfaces cut-across folded gypsum developed during an initial phase of slow base level deepening punctuated by periods of stability; (2) unusual deeply entrenched gypsum canyons related to a subsequent phase of rapid fluvial incision and water table lowering; (3) a polygonal karst of superlative quality mainly developed in the upper surface; (4) relict valleys disrupted by sinkholes in the lower erosional surface; (5) a large number of bedrock collapse sinkholes mostly associated with the lower surface; and (6) numerous cover subsidence sinkholes developed in the valley floors. This work analyses the spatial distribution, characteristics and evolution of the sinkholes within the broad Plio-Quaternary geomorphological and paleohydrological evolution of the epigene karst system dominated by autogenic recharge. A cartographic sinkhole inventory has been produced in an area covering 2820 km 2 with morphometric data and including 295 bedrock collapse sinkholes and 302 cover subsidence sinkholes. The different sinkhole types show a general spatial zonation controlled by the hydrogeological functioning of the different sectors: (1) solution sinkholes (polygonal karst) in the upper recharge area; (2) bedrock collapse sinkholes in the lower denudation surface and close to the base level, where well developed caves are inferred; and (3) cover subsidence sinkholes, with high densities probably associated with areas of preferred groundwater discharge. The morphology of the bedrock collapse sinkholes, varying from small cylindrical holes to large and deep tronco-conical depressions with gentle slopes reflect to geomorphic evolution of these sinkholes that reach exceptionally large hectometre-scale diameters. Their evolution, involving substantial enlargement and deepening, is attributed to the solutional removal as solute load of large volumes of gypsum by downward vadose flow. This type of morphological evolution with significant post-collapse solutional denudation differs from that observed in carbonate rocks characterised by lower solubility and erodibility. The analysis of historical imagery reveals that bedrock collapse sinkholes currently have a very low probability of occurrence and that buried cover subsidence sinkholes are used for urban development creating risk situations.
There are two conflicting models of sinkhole development along the Dead Sea (DS). The first one considers structural control on sinkholes, constraining them to tectonic lineaments. This hypothesis is based on seismic reflection studies suggesting that sinkholes are the surface manifestations of active neotectonic faults that may serve as conduits for under-saturated groundwater, enabling its access across aquiclude layers. Another hypothesis, based on results of multidisciplinary geophysical studies, considers the salt edge dissolution front as the major site of sinkhole formation. This hypothesis associates sinkholes with karstification of the salt edge by deep and shallow undersaturated groundwater. Our recent seismic reflection and surface wave studies suggest that salt formed along the active neotectonic faults. Sinkholes form in a narrow strip (60-100 m wide) along a paleo-shoreline constrained by faults and alluvial fans which determined the edge of the salt layer. This scenario reconciles the two major competing frameworks for sinkhole formation.