Lion (Panthera leo) ecology and livestock conflicts in Waza National Park, Cameroon (original) (raw)

Abstract

Demography and ecology were studied of a decreased lion population in Waza National Park, Cameroon Home ranges of lions were large with an average of 1043 (MCP 100%) or 635 (HM 95%). Lions spent most of their time inside the park, especially in the hot dry season. Time spent outside the park increases in the wet season and peaks in the cold dry season. Lions were most active during the night with crepuscular peaks around sunrise and sunset and reduced activity during the hottest parts of the day. This nocturnal activity increases when lions were outside the park. Lions were least active in the cold dry season compared to the hot dry and the wet season. Transects showed an increasing number and congregation of wild ungulates on the floodplain in time with most of the observed lions in the vicinity of these congregations. Number of nights present at a GPS cluster presented the best model to predict whether or not a lion had killed or scavenged an animal successfully. Lions killed or s...

Figures (41)

Lion (Panthera leo) ecology and livestock conflicts in Waza National Park, Cameroon

- Centre d’Etude de l’Environnement et du Développement au Cameroun (CEDC) Environment and Development Student Report no. ? Department Environment and Development, Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Leiden University

In 1968, when the Waza National Park in North Cameroon was given its status, the local human population was forced to move out of the park, after which most of the local communities settled just outside the park boundaries. The different communities are engaged in different activities such as small-scale agriculture, fishing and cattle breeding. Cattle usually graze around the boundaries of the park area, but sometimes cattle are also found grazing inside the park. Livestock predation, both inside and outside the park occurs mainly by hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and lions, causing conflicts with the livestock owners. Herbivore numbers in Waza National Park also dropped dramatically since the last decades (longh et al., 2004). Numbers of kob (Kobus kob kob), topi (Damaliscus lunatus korrigum) and roan antelope (Hippotragus equines) dropped from respectively 20,000, 20,000 and 2,000 in the 1960s and 1970s to respectively 8,929, 1,512 and 496 in 2000 and to resp.1,562, 848 and 150 in 2007 (Table 1, Iongh et al., 2004; Scholte et al., 2007;Omondi et al., 2007). This drop is due to the construction of the Maga dam upstream in 1979, due to poaching, and due to antelope livestock interactions, provoking diseases such as rinderpest (Scholte et al, 2007). This drop might explain the large average home range size of 630 km? (MCP100%) for lions in Waza National Park found in 2000 by (Bauer & Iongh, 2005). These authors also revealed that lions have different home ranges in the wet- and dry season. During the dry season, lions stayed well inside the park boundaries while in the wet season they went outside the park. However, their study had focused on woodland lions and not on the lions living on the floodplain

livestock attacks at the arrival of the wildebeest migration in the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Patterson et al (2004) as Woodroffe & Frank (2005) both suggest that the increase of livestock depredation in the wet season is up hand when native prey is inaccessible in and around respectively Tsavo National Park and the Laikipia district. Hemson (2003) found that lions in the Makgadikgadi National Park, Botswana increase the frequency with which they killed livestock during periods of low natural prey availability. However, when migratory wild prey moved away, lions killed resident wild prey more frequently than livestock despite livestock being most abundant. This suggests that lions may outweigh the costs, risks of being killed. bv the benefits. an easv meal. Home range is main y influenced by prey and water availability (Gittleman & Harvey, 1982; Van Orsdol et al., 1985; Vilj which in — is correla soil nutrient status and minimum home range oen, 1993; Adams, 2001) ed with a combination of rainfall (East, 1984). The size is determined by seasonal periods of food shortage (Van Orsdol et al., 1985). When food is not available, lions increase their home range in order to find prey animals. On the other hand, when prey is abundant, he home range decreases, holding the same biomass as during times of scarcity. Hemson (2003) found an exponential relationship for lean season prey biomass and lion home ranges, which provides strong evidence for the dependency of lion home range on prey availability. However, Nijhawan 2008) found that one male in Chobe National Park, Botswana had a home range of 2151.7 km? MCP100%) while there is a high prey density in hat area.

Fig 1 Map of Waza National Park.

Table 3 Ecological data for all four collared lions MCP, minimum convex polygon; HM, harmonic mean; home range data in km”; temperature in degrees Celsius; * mean based on 4 lions, note the smaller data set of L2 and L3; ° mean based on three lions, virtually no data of L2 and L3 of the cold dry season, L3’s collar failed at 25" at September 2007; +, L1 and L2 were both killed by locals after stock-raiding..

Fig 2 Home range size calculated with a Kernel test (H=0.018); HM (95%, 50 and 5%).

Fig 3 Seasonal variation in the amount of time spend outside the park.

Lions were most active during the night with crepuscular peaks around sunrise and sunset and Fig 4 Mean activity pattern and temperature throughout the day (n=4). Average distance between GPS fixes resembles the activity pattern.

Fig 5 Seasonal variation in the amount of metres walked a day. Lions were active for 23.61% of the day, of which 81.46% was nocturnal activity. Males were more active (24.22%) than females (23%; Z=-8.728, P<0.001) and had a higher nocturnal activity (85.79%) than females (77.14%; Z=-12.730, P<0.001). Lions were significantly less active in the cold dry season than in the hot dry season and the wet season (d.f. 2, P<0.001). Outside the park, lions had a higher nocturnal activity (83.58%) than inside the park (79.34%; Z=-4.236, P<0.001). Floodplain lions (L2, L3 and L4) had a significantly higher

Table 4 Numbers and percentages of GPS-clusters which were selected, visited and were carcasses were found Topi, Gazelle, Warthog, Elephant, Marabou Stork, Monitor Lizard, Cattle, Donkey and Sheep. The percentage of calves and sub adults found was 25.2%. Figure 8 shows the percentages of wild herbivores and livestock killed/scavenged by L1 and L2. Differences in killing percentages were significant for L1 (9°=21.844, d.f. 10, P=0.016) and for L2 (7°=21.003, d.f. 5, P<0.001). L1 preyed most upon cattle, roan antelopes and giraffes; where as L.2 preyed most upon kob, cattle and giraffes. Lions killed more wild ungulates (73%) than livestock 27%; Z=-5.519, P<0.001). Of the livestock killed by lions, 84% was cattle, 11% donkey and 5% sheep. Lions preferred all wild herbivores above ivestock. Of the wild herbivores lion preferred warthog, gazelle and roan antelope the most (Table 5). The average body mass of preferred prey species was 271 kg.

Fig 6 & 7 Herbivore number in time; herbivore congregation in time. The numbers of the largest herd during each transect are shown.

Table 5 Total kills recorded for L1 and L2, total number of prey species in and on the border of Waza N.P., body mass (mean female body mass), 4 of mean female body mass, percentage that each species comprised of the total kills recorded (67), percentage availability of each species, Jacob’s index values. Three species, donkey, marabou stork and monitor lizard were left out the analysis as no availability numbers were available.

Fig 8 Killing/scavenging percentages of L1 and L2.

Fig 9 Numbers of prey killed by L1 and L2 in different habitats. Lions killed prey in all different habitats. Almost all livestock was killed in the woodland zone (95%). Most kobs were killed on the floodplain (75%).L1 killed significantly more prey in the woodland zone than in the acacia zone and the floodplain (df. 2,

followed by the wet season and most livestock ki occurred in the cold dry season, although not significantly (Fig. 12, df. 2, P=0.822) In absolute number, most livestock kills occurred ii the wet season (Fig. 11). Relatively, the hot dry season has the lowest number of livestock kills, Fig 11 & 12 Number of prey killed throughout the year; number of livestock killed throughout the year (hot dry season, N=2; wet season, N=12; cold dry season, N=5).

Fig 10 Numbers of wild prey and livestock killed at different times of the day.

Table 7 Overview of the home ranges of Waza NP and Bénoué NP. Data of Bauer & de Jongh 2005 was from the year 200( and from the period 1999-2001. Data of de Iongh (unpublished data) was from November 2007-July 2008. * Minimun Convex Polygon based on 4-hour selection decreasing home range size with 2-3%. Home range is mainly influenced by prey and water availability (Gittkeman & Harvey, 1982; Van Orsdol et al., 1985; Viljoen, 1993, Adams, 200 declining over the last decades. De Iongh et 2004) reported an estimated prey density of 632 ike giraffe and elephant (including cattle 3872 Prey density in Waza National Park has been km” in 1998. Later, Bauer (2008) reported a prey density of 274 kg km”, excluding mega herbivores iF al Kg Kg km”). The WWE air count reported by Omondi et al (2007) resulted in a prey density of 142 kg km™ excluding mega herbivores, 844 kg km” including mega herbivores and 4233 kg km” including cattle. Predator biomass also decreased from 8.3 kg/ km™ in 1998 (Iongh et al, 2004) to 4.5 km™ in 2008. Predator and prey decrease resulted in a lower amount kg prey per kg predator/ km. With a lion population size estimate of maximum 25 lions (this study) and a hyena population size estimate of 100 hyenas (Bauer et al, 2008), the amount kg prey per kg predator/ km™ dropped from 76 in 1998 to 31 in 2008. These numbers suggest a large decrease of wild ungulates against a strong increase of cattle numbers. This decrease in wild prey might well explain the large home ranges found in this study.

Table 8 Percentages of prey killed/scavenged by lions body mass classes based on average female body weight * Total percentage of determined lion prey is 104.8%.

Table 1 Herbivore numbers in time Table 2 Home range sizes of various studies in various regions. Home ranges are given in km’.

Table 3 Ecological data for all four collared lions

MCP, minimum convex polygon; HM, harmonic mean; home range data in km”; temperature in degrees Celsius; * mean based on 4 lions, note the smaller data set of L2 and L3; ° mean based on three lions, virtually no data of

Table 4 Numbers and percentages of GPS-clusters which were selected, visited and were carcasses were found Table 5 Total kills recorded for L1 and L2, total number of prey species in and on the border of Waza N.P.,

marabou stork and monitor lizard were left out the analysis as no availability numbers were available.

Table 6 Numbers and percentages of lion kills inside and outside the park during day and night

Table 7 Overview of the home ranges of Waza NP and Bénoué NP. Data of Bauer & de Iongh 2005 was from

July 2008. “Minimum Convex Polygon based on 4-hour selection decreasing home range size with 2-3%. Table 8 Percentages of prey killed/scavenged by lions body mass classes based on average female body weight

“ Total percentage of determined lion prey is 104.8%.

Giraffe, adult

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149. Figure 8 Killing/scavenging percentages L1 (N=41) Cattle;
150. 44% Uda sheep;
151. 32% Killing/scavening percentage L2 (N=30) Kob;
152. 00% Gazelle;