‘The Meaning of the Child to the Parent: The Development and Validation of a new method of classifying parenting interviews for the nature of the parent-child relationship’, PhD thesis, London: University of Roehampton (original) (raw)

Abstract

sparkles

The study explores the development of a new procedure for classifying parenting interviews that examine the perceived meaning of children by their parents. It investigates how parental narratives shape parent-child relationships, grounded in attachment theory, aiming to provide insightful analysis for informed interventions in parenting dynamics. The research employs semi-structured interviews to uncover the meanings that parents attach to their children and the implications of these meanings on the parenting experience.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

References (216)

ASSESSED?! Self!Report!Questionnaire!or!Interview?! One!simple!way!to!assess!a!parent's!perception!of!their!child!and!their!parenting!is!through! a! questionnaire.! ! There! are! a! number! of! questionnaires! available! to! examine! a! parent's! generalised!conscious!views!about!parenting,!and!even!their!child!(e.g.!the!Parenting!Stress! Index,!Abidin!1997).!!However,!whilst!these!are!useful,!they!are!inadequate!for!the!task!in! hand.!!This!is!because:! Questionnaires+assess:+ Conscious%Memory:!What!we!are!currently!aware!that!we!know.! Semantic% Memory:! The! general! conclusions! we! have! drawn! from! our! experience:!how!we!think!things!"ought"!to!be.! What%we%are%prepared%to%admit:!!General!statements!are!easier!to!falsify!in! the!context!of!assessment,!to!look!better!than!we!are.! What%we%say%when%we%do%not%feel%particularly%pressurised%or%stressed.! The+Meaning+of+Child+is:+ Specific!to!the!relationship!between!parent!and!child.! May% have% elements% we% are% not% conscious% of,! or! not! always! aware! of! (e.g.! many!aspects!of!relationships! are! procedural!-! learned! habitual! behaviour,! or! contain! feelings! that! we! are! only! aware! of! in! certain! situations,! such! as! times!of!stress).! May%be%related%more%to%how%things%are,%than!how!we!think!they!are!or!ought% to%be.! May% have% elements% we% don't% want% to% admit! but! which! perhaps! could! be! revealed!in!a!process!that!is!more!inPdepth.% May%have%elements%that%only%emerge%when%we%feel%threatened%or%anxious:!In! assessing! risk! in! relationships,! we! want! to! assess! not! just! what! happens! when!things!are!going!well,!but!also!when!they!are!not.!Children!most!need! their! parents! when! distressed! or! anxious,! and! so! this! is! when! parenting! is! most!tested.
In!the!first!months!of!life!memory!is!imaged!-!tied!to!the!senses!(images!of!sight,!sound,! touch,!smell!and!taste).!!For!example!the!voice!of!a!baby's!mother,!or!the!sensation!of! being!caressed!or!hit.!
Even!when!interviewing!adults,!strong!images!(or!the!absence!of!them!when!they!might! be!expected)!usually!indicate!something!of!importance!and!are!looked!at!closely.!
Images! tend! to! convey! information! about! situations! where! danger! or! safety! is! more! probable.!
Secure!adults!tend!to!employ!lively!images!within!coherent!speech.!
Adults!who!feel!threatened!by!their!children!may!use!negative!and!arousing!images!of! them.!
Adults!who!are!unconnected!to!them!use!few!images!of!their!children!at!all,!or!idealised! images!of!a!'fantasy'!child.!
Connotative!Language!(Crittenden!&!Landini!2011)!
Connotative!language!is!the!use!of!language!to!influence!the!affective!state!of!listeners.!
Artificial!language!serves!to!create!distance!from!the!child,!and!to!exclude!listeners!from! the!speaker's!feelings!about!their!child.! !
Some!adults! cannot! understand!the!contingencies! in! relationships!(what!follows! what)! and!so!use!semantic!reasoning!to!justify!their!own!hostile!feelings.!Controlling!parents! will!usually!believe!that!the!child!is!to!blame!for!problems!in!their!relationship.!
It!puts!together!both!the!temporal!order!of!events!(what!actually!happened!when)!with! affectPladen!images.!!It!involves!integrating!information!about!sequences!of!events!with! context!(sensory!experience)!
Like! the! AAI,! the! PDI! often! alternates! between! questions! that! consciously! pull! for! episodic!and!semantic!memory:! P!What![generally]!happens!when![child]!is!upset?![Semantic!memory]!
P! Can! you! tell! me! about! a! [specific]! time! last! week! when! [c.]! was! upset! [Episodic! memory]?% Reflective!Integration!
Reflective! Integration! is! the! live! process! of! integrating! information! from! different! memory!systems!to!correct!distortions!and!find!new!and!more!helpful!meanings.! ! All!the!highPrisk!categories!suggest!a! pervasive!failure!to!take!the!child's! perspective,!either!seeing!the!child!in!a! hostile!and!very!negative!way,!or!failing!to! connect!with!the!child.! Clear!evidence!of!any!of!the!following:! ! semantic! statements,! which! ascribe! inappropriate! responsibility! to! the!child,!in!a!negative!way.!!It!is!coded!for!statements!where!any!of!the!following!apply:!
Statements! that! give! the! child! responsibility! for! actions! that! the! adult! was! either! fully!or!partially!responsible!for.!!!
Statements! that! seek! to! reduce! the! child's! actions,! or! motivations! to! the! negative! (this! is! called! 'Reductionist! Blaming! Thought'! in! the! Adult! Attachment! Interview,! Crittenden!&!Landini!2011).!"He%is%always%winding%me%up"%is!an!example!of!this!-!the! 'always'!reduces!the!child's!behaviour!to!that!which!intentionally!angers!the!parent,! and!the!statement!as!a!whole!blames!the!parent's!anger!on!the!child,!and!suggests! continual!hostility.!!
Statements!where!the!parent's!expectations!are!not!age!appropriate.!!The!parent's! disappointment! betrays! expectations! of! the! child,! which! are! too! high! or! otherwise! inappropriate,!placing!an!unreasonable!burden!on!the!child!to!live!up!to!them.!
!Statements! where! normal! age! appropriate! behaviour,! is! described! as! problematic! for! the! parent,! in! a! way! that! suggests! that! the! child! is! deficient! in! some! way.! The! child's!'deficiency'!is!perceived!as!causing!the!parent!particular!difficulties,!when!in! fact! the! evidence! would! suggest! that! such! problems! might! be! a! normal! part! of!
One!parent,!when!asked!to!describe!her!relationship!with!the!child,!chose!the!word!'playful'! and!gave!the!following!descriptions!to!support!it:! ! Reflective!Integration! Reflective!Integration!is!the!live!process!of!integrating!information!from!different!memory! systems!to!correct!distortions!and!find!new!and!more!helpful!meanings.!!It!does!need!to!be! distinguished! from! Reflective! Functioning! (Fonagy! 2006,! Slade! 2005),! which! refers! to! the! parent's!ability!to!understand!behaviour!in!terms!of!its!underlying!mental!states.!!Whilst!the! two! concepts! are! related! (it! is! difficult! to! see! how! one! could! integrate! information! from! cognition! and! affect! without! the! ability! to! reflect! upon! mental! states),! the! parent's! understanding!of!the!child's!mentalising!is!primarily!classified!under!Episodic!Memory!in!this! system! (see! relevant! categories! above).! Reflective! Integration,! as! understood! here,! is! around!the!identification!and!correction!of!error.!!Its!importance!in!classifying!the!Meaning! of! the! Child! is! particularly! around! helping! distinguish! those! interviews! where! there! are! continuing! problems! and! potential! risk,! from! those! relationships! where! there! have! been! problems,! but! where! things! have! improved,! or! have! a! good! chance! of! improving! with! support.! ! In! coding! terms! this! means! making! the! distinction! between! the! High! Risk! and! Intervention!categories,!and!the!Intervention!and!Adequate!categories.! !within!the!interview.!!It!is!close!to!Mary!Main's!(1995)!original! concept!of!metaPcognitive!monitoring!-!thinking!about!current!thinking.!!Fresh!reflection!is! evidence! of! the! speaker! thinking! about! what! they! are! talking! about! in! the! interview! and! either! correcting! themselves! or! coming! up! with! new! insight! that! has! hallmarks! of! being! developed!in!the!present!(rather!than!either!borrowed!from!professionals,!or!recycled!from! ! CHAPTER!11
The!overall!methodology!for!the!Meaning!of!the!Child,!and!the!assumptions!and!rationale! behind! it! are! outlined! and! explained! in! Chapter! 8! above.! ! This! chapter! deals! with! the! methodology!of!a!validation!study!within!the!quantitative!research!paradigm,!the!accepted! standard! within! the! field! of! researching! adult! and! child! attachment! relationships.! ! In! Chapter! 8! however,! it! was! noted! that! this! is! an! exploratory! study,! with! irreducibly! interpretive! elements! arising! out! of! the! nature! of! the! methods! used,! and! the! driving! purpose!and!intended!use!of!the!research!within!a!clinical!and!forensic!setting.!!Accordingly,! as!explained!in!Chapter!8,!a!more!interpretive!approach!is!offered!in!the!discussion!of!the! results! and! its! implications! in! Chapters! 13! and! 14,! following! the! statistical! analysis.!! However,! this! chapter! is! concerned! with! the! process! of! statistically! validating! the! classifications! yielded! by! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! in! relation! to! other! procedures! whose! p l e ! The!'Meaning!of!the!Child'!system!was!developed!whilst!the!writer!led!a!multi!disciplinary! team! carrying! out! assessment! and! intervention! in! cases! of! child! protection,! and! where! families! are! struggling! (usually,! but! not! exclusively! involved! in! the! family! justice! system).!! The! service! operated! as! part! of! a! voluntary! organisation! providing! services! to! families! in! three! settings,! day,! residential,! and! community! Children's! Centres.! ! This! service! ceased! in! 2012!owing!to!the!collapse!of!the!voluntary!organisation!itself,!but!the!work!has!carried!on! through!the!writer!and!colleagues!continuing!on!an!independent!basis.! ! considered!a!characteristic!primarily!of!the!parent!rather!than!a!particular!relationship,!and! so! can! be! assessed! in! the! AAI! as! well! as! the! PDI! (Fonagy! et! al.,! 1998,! Steele! et! al.,! 2008).!! Following! the! discussion! of! the! transmission! of! attachment! developed! in! the! preceding! chapters,! (see! especially! Figure! 1,! on! page! 110)! parental! RF! is! seen! as! a! mediating! factor! 'between'!the!AAI!and!the!Meaning!of!the!Child.!!However,!whilst!the!Meaning!of!the!Child! construct!is!intended!to!have!more!'breadth'!than!the!RF!scale,!for!example,!picking!up!on! the!affective!side!of!the!parentPchild!relationship,!and!specifically!addressing!conscious!and! unconscious! memory! systems! (see! Chapter! 9,! in! the! Coding! Manual),! the! concepts! are! related.! Convergence! is! seen! especially! in! the! construction! of! risk! as! level! of! simplification/distortion,!and!therefore!some!correlation!between!the!RF!scale!and!the!level! of! Sensitivity/Risk! in! the! PDI! is! expected.! ! If! these! theoretical! understandings! of! the! relationship! between! these! measures! is! correct,! the! Parental! RF! scale! will! be! related! to! CAREPIndex!Sensitivity,!but!not!so!closely!(Hypothesis!4).! establish! the! extent! to! which! the! validity! of! the! measure! can! be! generalised!beyond!its!immediate!context!(Creswell!2009).!!This!is!particularly!an!issue!for!a! measure! that! has! been! developed! with! an! 'at! risk'! sample.! ! Just! as! the! question! of! the! applicability! of! attachment! measures! developed! for! safe,! educated! and! advantaged! populations,! the! reverse! question! as! to! whether! a! measure! developed! by! looking! at! the! interviews!of!an!endangered,!struggling!population!can!say!anything!about!the!relationships! of!parents!living!in!safe!conditions.!!Part!of!the!purpose!of!the!measure!is!to!identify!risky! ! the! interview! is! classified! Adequate! or! Low! Adequate! (categories! 4,! and! 5),! then! although! the! main! relationship! pattern! remains! Sensitive,! a! 'negative'! pattern! is! also! classified! (in! parentheses).!!Where!the!Interview!is!classified!as!Intervention!or!High!Risk,!a!full!'negative'! pattern!(Controlling,!Unresponsive,!or!Controlling!and!Unresponsive)!is!awarded.!!In!other! words! increasing! Sensitivity! in! the! relationship! means! less! Control! and! Unresponsiveness! and! vice! versa.! ! Similarly! the! Controlling! and! Unresponsive! pattern! means! that! the! negativity! in! the! relationship! is! 'shared'! between! Control! and! Unresponsiveness! (for! example,! classifying! Unresponsive! and! Controlling! when! the! relationship! is! in! fact!
For!this!reason,!it!is!considered!that!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!classification!implies!a!scale! for! Control! and! Unresponsiveness! in! a! similar! way! to! the! CAREPIndex! (where! a! total! of! 14! ! |!P a g e !347!of!461! ! 'points'! are! allocated! between! Sensitivity,! Control! and! Unresponsiveness),! although! in! a! more!rudimentary!/!less!precise!way.!!Where!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!Sensitivity/Risk!was! coded! Sensitive! or! Sensitive/Adequate,! then! the! interview! was! coded! 0! for! Control! and! Unresponsiveness.!!Where!the!interview!was!coded!as!Adequate!or!Adequate/Intervention! (and! so! a! partial! 'negative'! pattern! was! identified)! then! the! interview! was! scored! 1! for! Control!or!Unresponsiveness!(or!0.5!for!each!in!those!interviews!with!a!partial!Unresponsive! and!Controlling!pattern).!!Where!the!interview!was!coded!as!Intervention!or!High!Risk!then! it!was!scored!as!2!for!Control!or!Unresponsiveness,!or!1!for!both,!depending!on!the!negative! pattern! identified! by! the! interview.! ! This! allowed! for! correlations! between! Unresponsiveness!and!Control!in!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!to!be!compared!with!the!CAREP
As!indicated,!the!CAREPIndex!scores!parental!Sensitivity,!Control!and!Unresponsiveness!on!a! 14Ppoint!scale,!with!points!being!divided!between!the!3!patterns.!!The!statistical!analysis!has! simply!used!these!scores!'as!is',!and!examined!their!correlation!to!the!Meaning!of!the!Child! 'scales'!for!Sensitivity,!Risk!and!Control,!as!they!are!assumed!to!function!in!the!same!way,! with!the!modifications!described!above!in!relation!to!Unresponsiveness!and!Control!in!the! Meaning!of!the!Child.! The! CAREPIndex! also! has! ratings! for! the! child! (Cooperation,! Passivity,! Difficulty,! and! Compulsivity).!!Because!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!specifically!assesses!the!parent,!and!also! because!of!the!differing!care!histories!between!and!within!the!samples,!these!scores!were!
Similarly,! a! statistically! significant! relationship! between! the! Unresponsiveness! in! the! Meaning!of!the!Child!and!the!CARE!Index!was!found,!as!can!be!seen!in!the!statistics!in!Figure!
A!statistically!significant!correlation!(coefficient!=!0.86,!p!=!0.000)!was!found!between!the! Risk/Sensitivity! classification! of! the! 'Meaning! of! the! Child'! (MotC)! and! parental! Reflective! Functioning!(RF)!within!the!whole!sample,!as!can!be!seen!from!Figure!23!below:! ! w i t h ! t h e ! C A R E 6 I n d e x : ! C u l t u r a l , ! G e n d e r ! a n d ! C o n t e x t u a l ! I s s u e s ! The! statistical! analysis! presented! above! does! show! that! the! study! has! been! able! to! demonstrate! what! it! set! out!to!show;!namely!that!it!is!possible!to! predict!the!nature!of! a! parent's!face!to!face!relationship!with!their!child!(as!measured!by!the!level!of!Sensitivity!in! the!CAREPIndex,!as!well!as!the!level!of!Unresponsiveness!and!Control)!by!the!way!in!which! the! parent! speaks! and! thinks! about! their! child! in! the! Parent! Development! Interview.! ! Of! course,! no! simple! causal! relationship! is! implied! by! the! correlations,! nor! indeed! by! the! theory.!!It!is!not!presumed!that!the!way!the!parent!speaks!about!the!child!in!the!Meaning!of! the! Child! causes! the! way! they! act! in! facePtoPface! play! in! the! CAREPIndex.! ! Indeed,! it! is! suggested! that! the! relationship! is! twoPway! (see! the! discussion! in! Chapters! 1! and! 7,! and! Figure!1%and%Figure!2,!pp.!110P115!above).!!The!level!of!agreement!indicated!in!the!results! provides!strong!evidence!both!for!the!validity!of!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!measure,!and!the! construct!it!measures.! The!link!between!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!and!the!CAREPIndex!was!demonstrated!with!both! fathers! and! mothers,! and! also! in! both! the! normative! and! the! 'at! risk'! samples.! ! The! relationship! between! CAREPIndex! Sensitivity/Risk! and! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! Sensitivity/Risk! was! a! little! less! strong! in! the! 'at! risk'! sample,! perhaps! reflecting! the! increased!complexity!of!these!interviews!and!CAREPIndexes!as!well,!but!given!the!stronger! relationship!between!the!negative!patterns!in!the!Risk!sample!(see!below),!the!issue!is!more! likely!related!to!the!question!of!who!the!child's!attachment!figures!are/were.!!Many!of!the! CAREPIndexes! undertaken! in! the! Residential! Assessment! were! done! shortly! after! the! child! ! the! relationships! are! struggling,! than! in! normative! dyads,! where! the! difficulties! in! the! relationship! are! less! marked,! more! 'diffuse'! and! 'diluted',! and! so! the! differences! between! control! and! unresponsiveness! is! less! clear! in! both! measures.! ! This! problem! may! be! exaggerated! by! the! smaller! size! of! the! normative! sample,! something! indicated! by! the! fact! that!the!problem!disappears!when!the!sample!is!considered!as!a!whole.!!As!already!pointed! out,! there! are! only! 7! out! of! the! 23! parentPchild! relationships! in! the! normative! sample! classified! as! 'Struggling'! (see! Figure! 36,! on! page! 365! above! and! discussion),! where! these! patterns!should!be!more!clearly!defined.!!Therefore!the!better!findings!for!Sensitivity!in!the! normative!sample,!and!for!the!'negative'!patterns!in!the!'at!risk'!sample!are!to!be!expected.!! The!purpose!of!the!negative!patterns!in!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!was!and!is!to!discriminate! between! different! kinds! of! struggling! relationships,! and! the! data! would! suggest! that! the! measure!has!achieved!this.!
In!addition,!for!all!that!the!conceptual!coherence!between!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!and!the! CAREPIndex!the!systems!are!not!completely!comparable:!the!CAREPIndex!patterns!are!not!so! much! patterns! as! scores! (14! 'points'! are! divided! between! Sensitivity,! Control! and! Unresponsiveness),! whereas! in! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! the! establishment! of! a! clear! negative!pattern!(Control!or!Unresponsiveness)!places!the!interview!in!the!Intervention!or! Risk! category! (in! the! absence! of! clear! evidence! also! of! a! Sensitive! pattern),! and! a! partial! category! is! given! in! interviews! considered! Adequate.! ! The! question! of! what! is! the! main! pattern!in!the!CAREPIndex!is!less!easy!to!define.!! Furthermore,! there! were! coding! issues! with! both! samples:! the! US! sample! raised! issues! around! whether! the! cultural! tendency! towards! more! interventionist! play! with! babies! was! often! intrusive/controlling,! and! with! complex! 'at! risk'! interviews,! coder! agreement! on! !frequent!debate!for!example,!as!to!whether!intrusive!behaviour!on!behalf!of!the!parent!is! controlling!(by!which!it!is!felt!it!is!contingent!on!the!child's!behaviour,!and!so!functioning!in! a! punitive! way)! or! unresponsive,! in! that! it! is! unrelated! to! what! the! child! is! doing,! but! dependent!on!something!going!on!in!the!parent's!head.!!The!Meaning!of!the!Child!may!be! better!placed!to!shed!light!on!the!issue!than!the!CAREPIndex,!because!of!the!way!in!which!it! makes!visible!the!mind!of!the!parent,!but!of!course!ways!in!which!it!might!go!beyond!the! CAREPindex!can't!be!established!by!comparing!the!two!measures.! However,!these!statistical!difficulties!throw!up!a!wider!issue!as!to!whether!the!meaning!of! the!Unresponsive!and!Controlling!patterns!are!identical!in!both!measures.!!It!may!be!that!to! use!the!same!terms!is!misleading,!as!the!patterns!may!have!a!different!significance!in!each! system! (one! that! overlaps! rather! than! is! identical).! ! The! assumption! that! was! behind! the! Unresponsive! and! Controlling! patterns! in! the! Meaning! of! the! Child,! was! that! parents! who! seek! to! control! their! child's! behaviour! in! the! CAREPIndex! would! show! an! intense! but! negative!(either!hostile!or!needy!or!both)!connection!in!the!way!they!spoke!about!the!child.!! By!the!same!token!it!was!hypothesised!that!those!who!did!not!respond!to!their!child,!either! at! all,! or! in! any! way! that! was! related! to! the! child's! behaviour,! would! seek! to! distance! themselves!from!their!feelings!about!the!child,!and!the!feelings!involved!in!being!the!child's! parent.!!Regardless!of!the!statistical!difficulties,!the!progress!of!the!study!has!called!these! assumptions!into!question.!!! The!first!significant!exception!to!this!in!fact!became!apparent!early!on!in!the!development! of!the!coding!system!and!so!was!incorporated!into!it.!!There!were!a!number!of!interviews! that! were! markedly! and! undeniably! hostile! to! the! child,! where! the! CAREPIndexes! were!
!Unresponsive,!or!Unresponsive!with!some!element!of!Control.!!These!interviews,! in! addition! to! showing! hostility,! tended! to! show! a! pattern! of! helplessness! and! of! having! given!up!in!some!way!in!being!an!effective!parent!to!the!child.!!!This!pattern!was!labelled!as! 'Controlling!Withdrawal',!because!it!appeared!that!the!parent's!lack!of!responsiveness!was! the! result! of! somehow! categorising! the! child! as! too! bad! to! be! parented! properly! (rather! than!the!more!common!pattern!for!extreme!unresponsiveness!of!idealising!the!child!as!an! 'almost!adult'!who!did!not!require!attentive!parental!care).!!This!pattern!once!identified!is! usually! coded! as! 'Controlling! and! Unresponsive',! because! it! is! felt! that! the! hostility! that! is! clear! in! the! interview! should! show! through! at! least! in! the! affect! dimension! of! the! CAREP Index! (which! deals! with! the! parent's! emotional! responses! to! the! child).! ! In! fact! the! CAREP Indexes!of!these!interviews!are!mixed;!in!some!cases!they!are!classified!as!almost!entirely! Unresponsive,!and!in!some!cases!partially!so,!as!predicted.!!Developmental!stages!may!play! a!role!in!this,!in!that!more!active!toddlers!may!provoke!conflict!with!these!parents,!which!is! not!apparent!in!parents!of!babies.!!Whilst!the!physical!aspects!of!caring!for!a!baby!may!be! distasteful!to!this!group!of!parents,!the!CAREPIndex!does!not!necessarily!demand!this,!as!it!is! play!based.!!This!kind!of!parent!may!simply!leave!the!baby!alone!or!make!token!efforts!to! engage!without!the!hostility!becoming!apparent.! In!addition!to!this,!another!pattern!emerged!from!the!process!of!classifying!the!normative! sample! that! is! not! currently! captured! by! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! system.! ! There! were! a! number! of! interviews! that! followed! the! Unresponsive! pattern! of! giving! idealised,! stereotyped! and! somewhat! clichéd,! affectless,! and! impersonal! accounts! of! their! child! and! their! parenting,! that! were! coded! as! predominantly! Controlling! in! the! CAREPIndex.! ! These! interviews!tended!to!exhibit!strong!and!somewhat!extreme!reactions!to!the!child's!negative! ! |!P a g e !377!of!461! ! affect! (for! example,! some! strong! exaggerated! images! or! negative! language)! that! might! suggest! the! parent! was! fearful! of! the! child's! negative! feelings,! but! no! other! controlling! discourse! markers! (and! within! a! pattern! that! was! idealising).! ! This! phenomenon! was! seen! both! in! extreme,! highPrisk! interviews,! as! well! as! in! interviews! coded! in! the! adequate! and! intervention! ranges,! in! a! less! stark! or! more! diluted! form.! ! It! was! these! interviews,! principally,!that!undermined!the!statistical!significance!for!Control!and!Unresponsiveness!in! the!normative!sample.! Further!work!would!be!needed!to!establish!this!and!test!it!out,!but!this!may!be!a!pattern! that! is! something! of! a! 'mirror! image'! of! the! Controlling! Withdrawal! pattern;! parents! who! seek! to! distance! themselves! from! the! child's! negative! affect! through! the! idealising,! distancing!pattern!in!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!(and!so!are!coded!Unresponsive)!but!who!in! their! facePtoPface! interaction! with! the! child,! especially! when! stressed,! can't! keep! this! up.!! Having!the!child!directly!in!front!of!them,!and!being!faced!(literally)!with!the!child's!negative! affect! (as! opposed! to! only! speaking! about! it! to! somebody! outside! the! relationship),! they! cannot!distance!themselves!by!not!responding,!but!rather!seek!to!actively!dismiss!the!child's! negative!affect.!!The!controlling!behaviour!of!these!parents,!may!not!serve!to!maintain!an! intense! or! needy! struggle! with! the! child! in! order! to! feel! close! to! the! child,! as! would! characterise! most! controlling! parentPchild! relationships.! ! Instead,! the! interviews! of! such! parents! suggest! that! the! controlling! behaviour! functions! to! dismiss! the! child's! negative! feelings,!in!order!to!distance!the!parent!from!the!negative!feelings!involved!in!parenting!the! child.!!! The!hypothesis!is!that!such!parents!would!be!classified!as!Type!A!in!the!Adult!Attachment! Interview! (see! the! account! of! the! AAI! attachment! patterns! in! Chapter! 9! above,! and! also! ! CHAPTER!14! P a t t e r n s ! The! statistical! analysis! of! the! Meaning! of! the! Child,! within! its! limitations,! achieved! its! purpose! in! providing! good! evidence! of! the! validity! of! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! as! a! procedure!to!identify!'at!risk'!parentPchild!relationships!and!discriminate!between!different! patterns!of!troubled!relationships!in!clinically!useful!ways.!!However,!at!the!same!time,!the! study! has! questioned! the! original! meaning! or! understanding! given! to! the! Meaning! of! the! Child!patterns!of!caregiving!(as!described!in!the!Coding!Manual,!Chapters!9!and!10).! At!the!outset!of!the!study,!the!categories!were!seen!as!an!extension!of!the!idea!of!parentP child!contingencies!that!is!central!to!the!CAREPIndex,!to!the!realm!of!parent!representations! of!their!child!and!caregiving.!!Put!simply,!in!the!CAREPIndex,!Sensitive!parents!are!positively! contingent! to! their! infants;! parentPchild! behaviour! is! connected! in! ways! that! make! things! predictably!pleasant!for!them!both.!!Controlling!parents!are!negatively!contingent:!what!the! child! does! displeases! the! parent,! and! what! the! parent! does! is! unpleasant! to! the! child.!! Unresponsive!parents!are!not!contingent:!their!actions!bear!no!relation!to!what!the!child!is! doing.!!In!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!manual,!the!notion!of!contingency!was!translated!to!the! idea! of! being! 'connected'! affectively! and! cognitively! to! the! child.! ! Therefore,! Sensitive! ! By! the! same! token,! some! Unresponsive! parents! are! desperately! committed! to! their! child(ren)! and! desperate! to! be! good! parents! to! them.! ! Their! selfPprotective! strategy! may! prevent! them! from! truly! knowing! their! child;! but! to! say! that! they! are! 'unconnected',! and! thus!by!implication!their!child!has!no!meaning!to!them,!is!misleading.!!Even!with!Sensitive! interviews,! this! characterisation! can! be! questioned! in! cases! such! as! Leanne,! discussed! below,! where! her! sensitivity! is! hard! earned! on! account! of! adverse! experiences! that! have! impacted! upon! the! relationship.! ! Leanne's! relationship! with! her! daughter! gives! her! great! pain,! as! well! as! joy,! as! a! result! of! the! pain! of! their! separation.! ! To! demand! that! the! connection!be!'positive'!distracts!attention!from!the!balance,!warmth,!and!perceptiveness! that!made!that!interview!such!a!sensitive!one.! Further! reflection! on! the! use! and! meaning! of! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! patterns! suggests! that! rather! than! being! a! positive/negative/absent! connection! distinction,! the! patterns! can! be!seen!on!a!continuum!between!distanced,!psychologically!unavailable!caregiving!on!one! side,! and! intrusive,! overly! close,! psychologically! enmeshed! caregiving! on! the! other,! with! Sensitive! caregiving! being! a! cooperative,! mutual! dialogue! that! occupies! the! balance! between!these!two!extremes.!!However,!in!talking!about!distancing!vs.!intrusion,!we!are!not! talking!about!the!parent!taking!over!the!child's!physical!space!or!withdrawing!from!it,!but! rather!the!mental!space!or!psychological!space!that!should!be!jointly!constructed!in!healthy! relationships.!!Building!upon!the!idea!of!the!'interPsubjective!space'!developed!in!Chapters!3! and! 7! above,! the! meeting! of! the! parent! and! child! is! seen! as! a! collaborative! or! nonP collaborative! dialogue! (LyonsPRuth,! 1999,! Beebe! et! al.,! 2012b)! that! arises! out! of! the! psychological!meaning!that!each!has!for!the!other!(see!the!discussion!around!Figure!2!from!
In!Sensitive!interviews,!the!'coPconstructed'!interPsubjectivity!is!shown!in!the!interview!itself! as!well!as!the!parent's!relationship!with!their!child.!!Without!losing!awareness!of!her!own! feelings,! Leanne! took! the! interviewer's! perspective! throughout,! and! was! open! and! cooperative!in!her!discussion!of!her!daughter.!!At!times!she!moderated!the!intensity!of!her! feelings!by!distancing!language,!and!so,!far!from!distancing!herself!from!the!child,!or!being! overly!intense,!she!was!in!fact!regulating!herself!(and!protecting!the!interviewer)!in!the!face! of! her! very! strong! emotions.! ! In! this! way,! the! interPsubjective! space! between! the! interviewer!and!Leanne!was!created!between!them!in!a!cooperative!manner,!in!a!way!that! mirrored!Leanne's!relationship!with!her!daughter.! This!sensitivity!was!also!observed!in!the!CAREPIndex!video!taken!of!Leanne!with!Lizzie.!!The! video! showed! an! episode! of! pretend! play! that! was! beautifully! contingent! and! mutually! 'constructed'!between!parent!and!child.!!Lizzie!set!out!a!tea!set!for!her!toys!Elbie!and!Cattie.!! Leanne! was! encouraging! and! supporting! of! her! play,! naming! her! actions! and! offering! assistance! without! taking! over! intrusively.! Lizzie! searched! for! the! tea! spoons! and! after! a! failed! attempt! she! turned! to! her! mother! who! showed! her! "where! they! are! hiding! in! the! bottom!of!the!bag."!Lizzie!pulled!out!two!spoons!holding!one!in!each!hand!and!smiled!with! pleasure.! Lizzie! continued! to! play,! pretending! to! put! milk! in! each! cup! then! stir! each! one.!! Mother!suggested!she!put!the!tea!in!before!she!stirs!and!Lizzie!wafted!the!teapot!over!the! cups!and!imitates!the!sound!of!tea!pouring.!!This!pretend!play!sequence!continued!to!the! pleasure! of! both! Lizzie! and! her! mother.! ! Some! way! into! the! interaction! Lizzie! noticed! the! cameraPperson! in! the! chair! and! immediately! leaned! into! her! mother,! dropping! her! head! coyly.!Mother!cuddled!her!and!asked!if!Lizzie!is!feeling!shy,!offering!an!appropriate!mental! state! to! frame! her! behaviour.! ! Lizzie's! immediate! response! was! to! seek! comfort! from! her! ! Research!using!the!CAREPIndex!provides!some!validation!of!this!analysis!of!child!outcomes,! given! the! connection! between! the! two! measures! that! has! been! established! in! this! study,! particularly!in!the!understanding!of!troubled!relationships.!!However,!further!analysis!of!the! relationship!of!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!with!the!attachments!of!older!children!is!needed.!! For! example,! interviews! have! been! carried! out! with! parents! of! preschool! and! schoolPaged! children! in! conjunction! with! attachment! story! stems! (Emde,! Wolf! &! Oppenheim! 2003,! Farnfield,! 2009).! ! Analysis! of! the! relationship! between! the! two! would! not! only! allow! for! further!understanding!of!the!developmental!consequences!of!the!Meaning!of!the!Child,!but! also! allow! for! testing! of! some! of! the! hypotheses! around! different! attachments! in! large! families,! suggested! at! points! in! this! study.! ! These! hypotheses! arise! out! of! clinical! work! already!conducted!using!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!with!complex!families,!but!are!in!need!of! being!validated!by!way!of!a!properly!conducted!study.!!Similarly!work!carried!out!using!the! Meaning! of! the! Child! with! parents! of! older! children! using! the! Child! Attachment! Interview! (CAI:! ShmueliPGoetz! et! al.,! 2008)! and/or! the! School! Age! Assessment! of! Attachment,! and! Transition! to! Adulthood! Attachment! Interview! ! (SAA! and! TAAI:! Crittenden,! Kozlowska! &! Landini!2010,!Farnfield!et!al.,!2010,!Crittenden!et!al.,!2013)!would!also!assist!in!following!the! developmental!pathway!of!relationships!characterised!by!the!different!Meaning!of!the!Child! patterns,!and!assessment!of!risk!in!parentPchild!relationships.!
Whilst! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! procedure! has! been! developed! within! the! field! of! attachment! theory,! and! so! the! focus! has! been! on! its! place! in! the! 'transmission'! of! attachment!from!parent!to!child,!the!origin!of!the!idea!came!from!studies!relating!to!Child! Protection,!and!in!particular!the!seminal!research!into!fatal!child!abuse!of!Reder!and!Duncan!! ! which!is!a!pattern!based!around!fitting!in!with!others!and!withdrawing!psychologically!(and! perhaps!might!be!more!associated!with!Unresponsiveness)?!! Clearly!more!data!is!needed!to!validate!these!hypotheses!or!suggest!alternatives,!and!help! develop! these! intuitions! from! experience! of! using! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! into! a! more! comprehensive!and!coherent!theory.!!Such!a!study!involving!the!AAI!and!the!Meaning!of!the! Child!may!require!more!constructs!or!more!complex!analysis!than!simply!comparing!the!AAI! patterns! and! those! of! the! Meaning! of! the! Child,! in! order! for! example,! to! understand! the! effects!of!more!recent!'trauma',!such!as!abusive!relationships!(which!are!not!always!picked! up!in!the!AAI),!or!child!specific!trauma/loss,!such!as!enforced!separation!from!the!child,!or! the!diagnosis!of!disability!(Oppenheim!et!al.,!2009,!Pianta,!Marvin!&!Morog!1999,!Solomon! &! George! 2000),! as! well! as! meanings! organised! around! dangers! in! the! 'wider'! family! and! social! systems! (Crittenden! &! Dallos! 2009).! ! As! has! already! been! observed,! whilst! central! organising! patterns! are! both! helpful! and! necessary,! part! of! the! aim! in! developing! the! Meaning! of! the! Child! has! been! to! develop! a! 'toolbox'! of! constructs! with! which! to! analyse! interviews! and! make! these! more! specific! meanings! visible! (as! is! apparent! from! the! case! examples!discussed!in!this!and!the!preceding!chapter).!!However,!the!initial!validation!of!the! Meaning!of!the!Child!procedure!and!construct!creates,!it!is!hoped,!a!valuable!opportunity! for! further! research! to! 'fill! in! the! links! in! the! chain'! and! perhaps! find! further! organising! concepts! that! help! understand,! in! a! more! generally! applicable! way,! the! process! of! 'transmission'!envisaged!in!Chapter!7,!and!visually!in!Figure!1!on!page!110!above.! !such!as!the!Meaning!of!the!Child,!the!'wider!web!of!influences'!can!also!be!seen,! and!their!influence!assessed.!!The!issue!is!not!the!source!but!the!nature!of!the!distortion,! and!the!way!in!which!the!'reality!gap'!impacts!upon!the!onPgoing!dialogue!between!parent! and!child.! It! must! not! be! thought! that! either! the! person! and! subjective! 'lens'! or! the! wider! systemic! 'lens'! is! a! better,! more! accurate,! or! a! more! healthy! view.! ! Each! can! be! corrective! of! the! other;! family! and! social! influences! and! meanings! can! be! corrective! or! ameliorating! of! problems!in!the!parentPchild!coPconstruction!of!their!relationship.!!Conversely,!as!we!saw!in! the!story!of!Leanne!discussed!briefly!above,!it!can!work!the!other!way!around.!!The!personal! connection! that! existed! between! Leanne! and! her! daughter,! led! her! to! challenge! the! powerful! meanings! given! to! her! relationships! by! her! family! and! the! outside! world,! and! brought!about!a!more!sensitive!and!loving!relationship!with!her!daughter!than!might!have! been! predicted,! had! her! status! and! social! position! not! been! challenged! in! the! way! it! was.!! The!'meaning!of!the!child!to!the!parent'!is!not!just!about!identifying!risk,!but!also!a!potential! catalyst! to! rePorganisation! and! change.! ! It! is! hoped! therefore,! in! enabling! this! 'biPfocal'! perspective!on!relationships,!that!the!Meaning!of!the!Child!can!make!a!useful!contribution! both!to!the!assessment!of!particular!children!and!their!families,!and!towards!understanding! the!influence!of!adult!patterns!of!selfPprotection!in!the!protection!and!nurture!of!children.!
A! fuller! introduction! to! and! explanation! of! attachment! theory,! and! its! relevance! to! parenting! is! given! in! Chapter! 9! in! The! Coding! Manual,! focussing! particularly! upon! Crittenden's! Dynamic! Maturational! Model! of! Attachment! (DMM:! Crittenden! 2008,! Crittenden! &! Landini! 2011,! Farnfield! et! al.! 2010).! ! However,! much! of! the! literature! discussion! in! Section! A! is! based! upon,! or! makes! use! of,! the! system! of! classifying! Adult! Attachment! developed! by! Mary! Main! and! her! colleagues! (Main! &! Goldwyn! 1994,! George,!
Ainsworth's!original!attachment!classifications!of!infants!in!the!Strange!Situation!(Ainsworth! et! al.,! 1978)! did! not! fit! infants! of! parents! in! 'Risk'! samples,! such! as! mentally! ill! adults,! or! families! in! child! protection! settings.! ! Main! and! Solomon! (1990)! developed! a! further! classification! of! 'disorganized'! to! include! children! whose! fear! of! their! parents! prevented! them! from! 'organising'! a! coherent! pattern! of! attachment.! ! In! adults,! the! 'disorganised'! pattern! is! thought! to! refer! to! adults! with! unresolved! trauma! or! loss,! or! those! whose! attachments!are!incoherent!and!cannot!be!classified!as!any!other!pattern!(Hesse!2008).!!For! this!reason,!the!system!developed!by!Main!and!colleagues!is!often!referred!to!as!the!ABCD!
A! patterns! in! the! DMM! would! be! classified! as! fearfully! preoccupied! (Type! C)! in! the! ABCD! model!(Crittenden!et!al.,!2003).!!Crittenden's!approach!to!classifying!the!Adult!Attachment! Interview! (Crittenden! &! Landini! 2011)! incorporates! a! detailed! theory! of! information! processing! under! conditions! of! threat,! along! with! further! modifiers! (e.g.! depression,! reorganisation)! and! kinds! of! unresolved! trauma! (e.g.! dismissed,! preoccupied,! blocked,! hinted,!and!vicarious).!!These!constructs,!insofar!as!they!are!relevant!to!the!Meaning!of!the! Child!and!its!validation,!are!outlined!more!fully!in!Chapter!9!(the!Coding!Manual).! However,!as!some!of!Crittenden's!patterns!are!referred!to!by!name!in!the!discussion,!they! are! summarised! in! brief! below! (drawn! from! Crittenden! 2008,! 2010,! Crittenden! &! Landini! 2011):! TYPE!B!PATTERNS! B3:!!Individuals!using!Type!B!strategies!expect!safety,!nurture!and!protection!from!others.!! Adults!and!children!using!a!B3!strategy!are!balanced!in!their!use!of!cognitive!and!affective! information!in!relationships.!!They!do!not!need!selfPprotective!distortions!in!the!manner!in! which!they!perceive!themselves!and!others.! B162:!Individuals! using! a! B1P2! pattern! inhibit! negative! feelings! (affect)! more! than! B3,! but! remain!balanced!in!their!overall!perceptions.! B465:! Individuals! using! B4P5! patterns! exaggerate! negative! affect,! with! B4! occasionally! sentimental,!and!B5!somewhat!irritated,!but!both!nevertheless!are!essentially!balanced!in! their!integration!of!their!own!and!other's!perspectives.! TYPE!A!PATTERNS! A162:!!Individuals!using!A1P2!strategies!inhibit!negative!feelings!in!conditions!of!mild!threat! and! tend! to! distance! themselves! from! danger.! ! They! will! not,! however,! ignore! serious! threats!to!self!and!child.!!Adults!using!an!A1!strategy!tend!to!be!cool!and!business!like,!and! those!using!an!A2!pattern!may!be!more!socially!engaged,!but!somewhat!facile!in!respect!of! a! tendency! to! avoid! uncomfortable! situations! and! subjects.! ! These! patterns! are! not! associated! with! psychological! or! parenting! difficulties,! except! possibly! when! accompanied! by!trauma.! A3:! Individuals! using! the! A3! strategy! (compulsive! caregiving)! inhibit! their! own! negative! feelings! to! focus! on! accomodating! those! of! their! caregiver! or! attachment! figure(s).! In! childhood!they!tend!to!try!and!take!care!of!withdrawn!or!depressed!caregivers,!seeking!to! raise!their!carer's!arousal,!or!otherwise!enable!them!to!engage!with!the!world!and!function! more!protectively.!!As!adults,!they!are!prone!to!'rescue'!others!and!often!find!employment! in!professions!that!value!their!ability!to!meet!the!needs!of!others.! A4:! Compulsively! compliant! individuals! focus! on! anticipating! the! demands! and! requirements! of! powerful! others! and! seeking! to! 'fall! in'! with! them.! ! They! tend! to! be! watchful!and!careful,!ensuring!that!they!do!not!displease!those!upon!whom!they!depend.!! As!both!adults!and!children!they!tend!to!internalise!the!perspectives!of!powerful!people!so! as!to!always!'do!the!right!thing'!from!the!perspective!of!their!attachment!figures.!!For!this! reason,!they!make!themselves!overly!responsible!for!problems!in!relationships!because!(in! their!own!eyes)!they!did!not!do!this!well!enough.! A5:!A5! individuals! use! a! compulsively! promiscuous! strategy! to! avoid! emotional! intimacy,! whilst! retaining! the! companionship! of! others! through! physical! displays! of! apparent! intimacy.!They!are!indiscriminate!in!their!affections,!as!trust!is!not!needed!in!relationships;! indeed!it!is!specifically!feared,!as!such!genuine!intimacy!feels!dangerous.!!They!may!become! sexually!promiscuous!in!order!to!avoid!getting!close,!whilst!still!avoiding!(physical)!isolation.!! Although! the! strategy! cannot! fully! develop! until! adolescence,! with! the! onset! of! sexual! development,! it! is! seen! partially! in! adopted! and! fostered! children! who! preferably! seek! stranger!relationships!and!so!avoid!further!rejection!and!harm!from!trusted!adults.! A6:!!Individuals!using!a!compulsively!selfPreliant!strategy!aim!to!avoid!intimacy!altogether!by! meeting!their!own!needs.!This!achieves!a!level!of!selfPprotection!at!the!expense!of!isolation.!! Like! the! A5! strategy! it! is! only! fully! seen! postPadolescence,! when! the! necessary! selfP protective!skills!are!learned.! A7:! Delusionally! idealising! individuals! have! faced! severe! and! pervasive! danger! over! which! they!had!no!control.!!They!have!learned!to!protect!themselves!by!taking!on!the!perspective! of! their! abusers! so! completely! that! the! have! lost! sense! of! their! own! perspective! almost! completely.!!This!is!done!through!radically!(delusionally)!idealised!representations!of!their! attachment!figures!that!have!functioned!to!dismiss!their!own!negative!feelings,!which!would! have!been!extremely!dangerous!to!them.!!It!is!the!interpersonal!version!of!the!'Stockholm! Syndrome',!where!captors!so!identified!with!their!abusers,!upon!whom!they!depended!for! survival,!that!they!fought!against!their!own!rescue.!!This!pattern!only!develops!in!adulthood.! A8:!Individuals!using!an!A8!strategy!("externally!assembled!self")!have!so!lost!a!conception! of!themselves!that!they!have!built!up!their!'self!knowledge'!externally,!from!professionals,! case!files!etc.!!They!are!typically!adults!who!have!experienced!the!Care!system!as!children,! lacking!any!internal!reference!point!for!their!own!memories!and!experiences,!as!a!result!of! frequent!changes!of!carer.! TYPE!C!PATTERNS! C162:! The! C1P2! (threateningPdisarming)! strategy! involves! exaggerating! ones! own! negative! feelings! to! coerce! others! into! being! more! predictable.! ! This! typically! means! alternating! displays! of! angry! or! irritable! behaviour! with! excessively! vulnerable! or! 'coy'! submissive! displays,!to!placate!angry!responses!from!attachment!figures.!!The!combined!'pushPpull'!of! the! alternating! exaggerated! feelings! keeps! unreliable! and! unpredictable! caregivers! or! attachment! figures! available! through! locking! them! into! a! struggle.! ! The! 'odd'! number! C! strategies!focus!more!on!anger,!and!the!'even'!patterns!exaggerate!vulnerability.!!C1P2!is!the! normative! version! of! these! patterns,! and! such! individuals! are! often! more! controlled! away! from! their! attachment! figures! (i.e.! in! school! or! work! situations)! and! also! are! less! likely! to! push! their! relationships! to! the! point! where! they! break,! or! where! the! strategy! becomes! damaging!to!others!or!themselves.! C364:! "The% C3?4% (aggressive?feigned% helpless)% strategy% involves% alternating% aggression% with% apparent%helplessness%to%cause%others%to%comply%out%of%fear%of%attack,%or%assist%out%of%fear% that%one%cannot%care%for%oneself"%(Crittenden,!2010).
Individuals!using!this!strategy!try!and!make!caregivers!more!attentive!to!them!by!continually! 'creating'!problems!and!needs!that!the!attachment!figure!is!required!to!'solve'.! C566:!The!C5P6!strategy!(punitively!obsessed!with!revenge!and/or!seductively!obsessed!with! rescue)!is!a!more!extreme!form!of!C3P4!that!actively!uses!deception!to!hide!their!strategy! from! others.! ! Those! using! a! C5! pattern! appear! cool! and! distanced;! powerful! and! 'unaffected',!yet!they!tell!their!story!in!such!a!way!as!to!draw!others!into!feeling!angry!on! their!behalf.!!They!therefore!mask!their!own!vulnerability!in!order!to!present!themselves!as! 'above'! the! feared! and! hated! other.! ! Adults! using! a! C6! patterns! present! themselves! as! in! need!of!rescue,!misleading!others!as!to!the!extent!of!their!anger,!so!as!to!draw!others!into! taking!up!their!cause!and!stepping!in!on!their!behalf.! C768:!"C7?8%(menacing?paranoid)%is%the%most%extreme%of%the%Type%C%strategies%and%involves%a% willingness% to% attack% anyone% combined% with% fear% of% everyone."% (Crittenden! 2010).! ! The! patterns! become! delusional! at! the! extreme,! with! the! desire! for! 'infinite! revenge'! (C7)! or! 'complete!paranoia'!(C8
A/C:!A/C!strategies!combine!any!subPpatterns!and!are!usually!adults!with!complex!histories! where!one!pattern!proved!insufficiently!protective.!!These!psychologically!opposite!patterns! may! be! alternating! (in! respect! of! different! relationships,! dangers,! or! situations)! or! subtly! blended,!the!most!extreme!version!of!which!is!psychopathy.% BIBLIOGRAPHY! Aber, J. L., J. Belsky, A. Slade & K. Crnic, (1999) 'Stability and Change in Mothers' Representations of their Relationship with their Toddlers.', Developmental Psychology, 35 (4) pp.1038-1047
Aber, J., A. Slade, B. Berger, I. Bresgi & M. Kaplan, (1985 -2003) The Parent Development Interview: Interview Protocol, Unpublished manuscript: Barnard College, Columbia University, New York.
Abidin, R. R., (1997) Parenting Stress Index: A Measure of the Parent-child System. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., (1967) Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Love. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., M. C. Blehar, E. Waters & S. Wall, (1978) Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Andrews, B. & G. W. Brown, (1991) The Self-Evaluation and Social Support (SESS) Manual, Unpublished manuscript: Royal Holloway & Bedford New College, London.
Barker, C., N. Pistrang & R. Elliott, (2002) 'Research Methods in Clinical Psychology: An Introduction for Students and Practitioners',
Barnard, K. E., (1976) NCAST II Learners Resource Manual, Unpublished manuscript: Seattle, WA.
Beebe, B., J. Jaffe, S. Markese, K. Buck, H. Chen, P. Cohen, L. Bahrick, H. Andrews & S. Feldstein, (2010) 'The Origins of 12-Month Attachment: A Microanalysis of 4-Month Mother-infant Interaction', Attachment & Human Development, 12 (1-2) pp.3-141
Beebe, B., F. M. Lachmann, S. Markese, K. A. Buck, L. E. Bahrick, H. Chen, P. Cohen, H. Andrews, S. Feldstein & J. Jaffe, (2012a) 'On the Origins of Disorganized Attachment and Internal Working Models: Paper II. an Empirical Microanalysis of 4-Month Mother-infant Interaction', Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 22 (3) pp.352-374
Beebe, B., F. Lachmann, S. Markese & L. Bahrick, (2012b) 'On the Origins of Disorganized Attachment and Internal Working Models: Paper I. A Dyadic Systems Approach', Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 22 (2) pp.253-272
Benoit, D., S. Madigan, S. Lecce, B. Shea & S. Goldberg, (2001) 'Atypical Maternal Behavior Toward Feeding-Disordered Infants before and After Intervention', Infant Mental Health Journal, 22 (6) pp.611-626 DOI:10.1002/imhj.1022
Benoit, D., C. H. Zeanah, K. C. Parker, E. Nicholson & J. Coolbear, (1997) '"Working Model of the Child Interview": Infant Clinical Status Related to Maternal Perceptions', Infant Mental Health Journal, 18 (1) pp.107-121
Berg, B., (2001) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 4th edition, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Bernier, A. & R. Miljkovitch, (2009) 'Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment in Father-Child Dyads: The Case of Single Parenthood', The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 170 (1) pp.31-52
Bhaskar, R., (1989) The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences, 2nd edition, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Bifulco, A., C. Jacobs, A. Bunn, G. Thomas & K. Irving, (2008) 'The Attachment Style Interview (ASI): A Support-Based Adult Assessment Tool for Adoption and Fostering Practice', Adoption & Fostering, 32 (3) pp.33-45
Bifulco, A., P. Moran, C. Jacobs & A. Bunn, (2009) 'Problem Partners and Parenting: Exploring Linkages with Maternal Insecure Attachment Style and Adolescent Offspring Internalizing Disorder', Attachment & Human Development, 11 (1) pp.69-85
Bifulco, A. & G. Thomas, (2012) Understanding Adult Attachment in Family Relationships: Research, Assessment and Intervention, London: Routledge.
Biringen, Z., A. Matheny, I. Bretherton, A. Renouf & M. Sherman, (2000) 'Maternal Representation of the Self as Parent: Connections with Maternal Sensitivity and Maternal Structuring', Attachment & Human Development, 2 (2) pp.218-232
Bowlby, J., (1969) Attachment and Loss, 1st edition, New York: Basic Books. Volume 1: Attachment Bowlby, J., (1980) Attachment and Loss, 2nd edition, New York: Basic Books. Volume 3. Loss: Sadness and Depression
Bowlby, J., (1982) Attachment and Loss, 2nd edition, New York: Basic Books. Volume 1: Attachment Bretherton, I., (2010) 'Fathers in Attachment Theory and Research: A Review', Early Child Development and Care, 180 (1-2) pp.9-23
Bretherton, I., J. D. Lambert & B. Golby, (2005) 'Involved Fathers of Preschool Children as seen by Themselves and their Wives: Accounts of Attachment, Socialization, and Companionship', Attachment & Human Development, 7 (3) pp.229-251
Bretherton, I. & K. A. Munholland, (2008) 'Internal Working Models in Attachment Relationships: Elaborating a Central Construct in Attachment Theory.' in Cassidy, J. & P. Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications, 2nd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.102-130
Bronfman, E., E. Parsons & K. Lyons-Ruth, (1999) Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification (AMBIANCE): Manual for Coding Disrupted Affective Communication, Unpublished Manuscript: Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA.
Buchheim, A., S. Erk, C. George, H. Kächele, T. Kircher, P. Martius, D. Pokorny, M. Ruchsow, M. Spitzer & H. Walter, (2008) 'Neural Correlates of Attachment Trauma in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study', Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 163 (3) pp.223-235
Buchheim, A. & C. George, (2011) 'The Representational, Neurobiological and Emotional Foundation of Attachment Disorganization in Borderline Personality Disorder and Anxiety Disorder' in Solomon, J. & C. George (eds.) Disorganized Attachment and Caregiving, New York: Guilford Press, pp.343-382
Burbules, N. C. & D. Phillips, (2000) Postpositivism and Educational Research, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Campbell, D. T. & D. W. Fiske, (1959) 'Convergent and Discriminant Validation by the Multitrait- Multimethod Matrix.', Psychological Bulletin, 56 (2) pp.81
Cherryholmes, C. H., (1992) 'Notes on Pragmatism and Scientific Realism', Educational Researcher, 21 (6) pp.13-17
Clark, V. L. P., C. A. Huddleston-Casas, S. L. Churchill, D. O. Green & A. L. Garrett, (2008) 'Mixed Methods Approaches in Family Science Research', Journal of Family Issues, 29 (11) pp.1543- 1566
Cowan, P. A. & C. P. Cowan, (2009) 'Couple Relationships: A Missing Link between Adult Attachment and Children's Outcomes', Attachment & Human Development, 11 (1) pp.1-4
Creswell, J. W., (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd edition, Los Angeles: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., A. Klassen, V. Plano Clark & K. C. Smith, (2011) 'Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences', Bethesda (Maryland): National Institutes of Health
Creswell, J. W. & V. L. Plano Clark, (2007) Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Crittenden, P. M., (1981a) The Parents' Interview: Interview Protocol, Unpublished Manuscript: Family Relations Institute, Miami.
Crittenden, P. M., (1981b) 'Abusing, Neglecting, Problematic, and Adequate Dyads: Differentiating by Patterns of Interaction', Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, pp.201-218
Crittenden, P. M., (1988) 'Distorted Patterns of Relationship in Maltreating Families: The Role of Internal Representation Models', Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 6 (3) pp.183- 199
Crittenden, P. M., (2002) 'Attachment, Information Processing, and Psychiatric Disorder', World Psychiatry, 1 (2) pp.72-75
Crittenden, P. M., (2003a) 'A Dynamic Maturational Approach to Continuity and Change in Patterns of Attachment (Chapter 18)' in Crittenden, P. M. & A. Claussen H. (eds.) The Organisation of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context, Paperback edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.343-357
Crittenden, P. M., (2003b) 'A Dynamic Maturational Exploration of the Meaning of Security and Adaption (Chapter 19)' in Crittenden, P. M. & A. Claussen H. (eds.) The Organisation of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context, Paperback edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.358-383
Crittenden, P. M., (2005a) 'Präventive Und Therapeutische Intervention Bei Risikoreichen Mutter- Kind-Dyaden: Der Beitrag Von Bindungstheorie Und Bindungsforschung (Attachment and Early Intervention)', Gewalt Gegen Kinder-früh Erkennen, Früh Helfen.Heftthema: IKK-Nachrichten, (1-2) pp.28-32 English version available online at: http://www.iasa- dmm.org/images/uploads/Attachment-and-intervention,%202005(1).pdf
Crittenden, P. M., (2005b) 'Using the CARE-Index for Screening, Intervention, and Research', Bindungsorientierte Ansätze in Der Praxis Der Frühförderung, 3 (Special Issue: 24) pp.99-106 English version published online at: http://www.patcrittenden.com/images/CARE-Index.pdf
Crittenden, P. M., (2006) 'Why do Inadequate Parents do what they Do' in Mayseless, O. (ed.) Parenting Representations: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.388-433
Crittenden, P., (2007) CARE-Index: Infant and Toddlers Coding Manual, Unpublished Manuscript: Family Relations Institute, Miami.
Crittenden, P. M., (2008) Raising Parents, Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Crittenden, P. M., (2010) DMM Model and Patterns, webpage, http://www.patcrittenden.com/include/dmm\_model.htm
Crittenden, P. M., C. Lang, A. H. Claussen & M. F. Partridge, (2003) 'Relations among Mothers' Dispositional Representations of Parenting (Chapter 12)' in Crittenden, P. M. & A. Claussen H. (eds.) The Organisation of Attachment Relationships: Maturation, Culture, and Context, Paperback edition, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.214-233
Crittenden, P. M., A. H. Claussen & K. Kozlowska, (2007) 'Choosing a Valid Assessment of Attachment for Clinical use: A Comparative Study', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 28 (2) pp.78-87
Crittenden, P. M. & R. Dallos, (2009) 'All in the Family: Integrating Attachment and Family Systems Theories', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry}, 14 (3) pp.389-409
Crittenden, P. M., S. Farnfield, A. Landini & B. Grey, (2013) 'Assessing Attachment for Family Court Decision-Making', Journal of Forensic Practice, 15 (4) pp. 237-248
Crittenden, P. M., K. Kozlowska & A. Landini, (2010) 'Assessing Attachment in School-Age Children', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (2) pp.185-208
Crittenden, P. M. & A. Landini, (2011) Assessing Adult Attachment: A Dynamic-Maturational Approach to Discourse Analysis, New York and London: WW Norton & Company.
Crittenden, P. M., M. F. Partridge & A. H. Claussen, (1991) 'Family Patterns of Relationship in Normative and Dysfunctional Families', Development and Psychopathology, 3 (4) pp.491-512
Damasio, A., (2003) Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Orlando, FL: Harcourt.
Denzin, N. K., (1978) The Research Act: A Theoretical Orientation to Sociological Methods, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dickstein, S., R. Seifer & K. E. Albus, (2009) 'Maternal Adult Attachment Representations Across Relationship Domains and Infant Outcomes: The Importance of Family and Couple Functioning', Attachment & Human Development, 11 (1) pp.5-27
Dubois-Comtois, K., C. Cyr & E. Moss, (2011) 'Attachment Behavior and Mother-Child Conversations as Predictors of Attachment Representations in Middle Childhood: A Longitudinal Study', Attachment & Human Development, 13 (4) pp.335-357
Dumont, C. & D. Paquette, (2013) 'What about the Child's Tie to the Father? A New Insight into Fathering, Father-child Attachment, Children's Socio-Emotional Development and the Activation Relationship Theory', Early Child Development and Care, 183 (3-4) pp.430-446
Emde, R. N., D. Wolf & D. Oppenheim, (2003) Revealing the Inner Worlds of Young Children: The MacArthur Story Stem Battery and Parent-Child Narratives, New York: Oxford University Press.
Farnfield, S., (2008) 'A Theoretical Model for the Comprehensive Assessment of Parenting', British Journal of Social Work}, 38 (6) pp.1076-1099 DOI:10.1093/bjsw/bcl395
Farnfield, S., (2009) Attachment and Exploration in the Preschool Years: Coding Manual for Narrative Stems with Pre-School Children. Version 1, Unpublished Manuscript: University of Roehampton, London.
Farnfield, S., A. Hautamäki, P. Nørbech & N. Sahhar, (2010) 'DMM Assessments of Attachment and Adaptation: Procedures, Validity and Utility', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (3) pp.313-328
Fonagy, P., (2001) Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis, New York: Other Press, LLC.
Fonagy, P., (2006) 'The Mentalization-Focused Approach to Social Development' in Allen, J. G. & P. Fonagy (eds.) Handbook of Mentalization-Based Treatment, West Sussex: Wiley, pp.53-100
Fonagy, P. & P. Luyten, (2009) 'A Developmental, Mentalization-Based Approach to the Understanding and Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder', Development and Psychopathology, 21 (4) pp.1355-1381
Fonagy, P., H. Steele & M. Steele, (1991) 'Maternal Representations of Attachment during Pregnancy Predict the Organization of Infant-mother Attachment at One Year of Age', Child Development, 62 (5) pp.891-905
Fonagy, P., M. Steele, H. Steele, A. Higgitt & M. Target, (1994) 'The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1992 the Theory and Practice of Resilience', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35 (2) pp.231-257
Fonagy, P., M. Steele, H. Steele, G. S. Moran & A. C. Higgitt, (1991) 'The Capacity for Understanding Mental States: The Reflective Self in Parent and Child and its Significance for Security of Attachment', Infant Mental Health Journal, 12 (3) pp.201-218
Fonagy, P. & M. Target, (2005) 'Bridging the Transmission Gap: An End to an Important Mystery of Attachment Research?',
Fonagy, P., M. Target, H. Steele & M. Steele, (1998) Reflective-Functioning Manual, Version 5.0, for Application to Adult Attachment Interviews, Unpublished Manuscript: University College, London.
Forbes, L., E. Evans, G. Moran & D. Pederson, (2007) 'Change in Atypical Maternal Behavior Predicts Change in Attachment Disorganization from 12 to 24 Months in a High-Risk Sample', Child Development, 78 (3) pp.955-971
George, C., (1996) 'A Representational Perspective of Child Abuse and Prevention: Internal Working Models of Attachment and Caregiving', Child Abuse & Neglect, 20 (5) pp.411-424
George, C., N. Kaplan & M. Main, (1985) The Berkeley Adult Attachment Interview, Unpublished manuscript: Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley.
George, C. & J. Solomon, (1988 -2007) The Caregiving Interview: Caregiving Representation Rating Manual, Unpublished manuscript: Mills College, Oakland, CA.
George, C. & J. Solomon, (1996) 'Representational Models of Relationships: Links between Caregiving and Attachment', Infant Mental Health Journal, 17 (3) pp.198-216
George, C. & J. Solomon, (2008) 'The Caregiving System: A Behavioral Systems Approach to Parenting.' in Cassidy, J. & P. Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 2nd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.833-856
George, C. & J. Solomon, (2011) 'Caregiving Helplessness: The Development of a Screening Measure for Disorganized Maternal Caregiving' in Solomon, J. & C. George (eds.) Disorganized Attachment and Caregiving, New York: Guildford Press, pp.133-163
George, C., J. Solomon, J. Solomon & C. George, (2011) 'The Disorganized Caregiving System: Mothers' Helpless State of Mind', Disorganized Attachment and Caregiving, pp.133-163
George, C. & M. West, (2001) 'The Development and Preliminary Validation of a New Measure of Adult Attachment: The Adult Attachment Projective', Attachment & Human Development, 3 (1) pp.30-61
George, C. & M. L. West, (2012) The Adult Attachment Projective Picture System: Attachment Theory and Assessment in Adults, New York: Guilford Press.
Goldberg, S., D. Benoit, K. Blokland & S. Madigan, (2003) 'Atypical Maternal Behavior, Maternal Representations, and Infant Disorganized Attachment', Development and Psychopathology, 15 (02) pp.239-257
Goodman, R., H. Meltzer & V. Bailey, (1998) 'The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A Pilot Study on the Validity of the Self-Report Version', European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 7 (3) pp.125-130
Green, J., C. Stanley & S. Peters, (2007) 'Disorganized Attachment Representation and Atypical Parenting in Young School Age Children with Externalizing Disorder', Attachment & Human Development, 9 (3) pp.207-222
Grienenberger, J., K. Kelly & A. Slade, (2005) 'Maternal Reflective Functioning, Mother-infant Affective Communication, and Infant Attachment: Exploring the Link between Mental States and Observed Caregiving Behavior in the Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment', Attachment & Human Development, 7 (3) pp.299-311
Grossmann, K., K. E. Grossmann, H. Kindler & P. Zimmermann, (2008) 'A Wider View of Attachment and Exploration: The Influence of Mothers and Fathers on the Development of Psychological Security from Infancy to Young Adulthood.' in Cassidy, J. & P. Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 2nd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.857-879
Hansburg, H., (1976) Separation Disorders: A Manual for the Interpretation of Emotional Disorders Manifested by the Separation Anxiety Test, Unpublished Manuscript: Jewish Child Care Association, 345 Madison Ave., New York.
Hautamäki, A., L. Hautamäki, L. Neuvonen & S. Maliniemi-Piispanen, (2010) 'Transmission of Attachment Across Three Generations: Continuity and Reversal', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (3) pp.347-354
Hesse, E., (2008) 'The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, Method of Analysis, and Empirical Studies.' in Cassidy, J. & P. Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 2nd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.552-598
Hesse, E. & M. Main, (2000) 'Disorganized Infant, Child, and Adult Attachment: Collapse in Behavioral and Attentional Strategies', Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48 (4) pp.1097-1127
Hesse, E. & M. Main, (2006) 'Frightened, Threatening, and Dissociative Parental Behavior in Low- Risk Samples: Description, Discussion, and Interpretations', Development and Psychopathology, 18 (02) pp.309-343
Howard, K. S., (2010) 'Paternal Attachment, Parenting Beliefs and Children's Attachment', Early Child Development and Care, 180 (1-2) pp.157-171
Huth-Bocks, A. C., A. A. Levendosky, G. A. Bogat & A. Von Eye, (2004a) 'The Impact of Maternal Characteristics and Contextual Variables on Infant-mother Attachment', Child Development, 75 (2) pp.480-496
Huth-Bocks, A. C., A. A. Levendosky, S. A. Theran & G. A. Bogat, (2004b) 'The Impact of Domestic Violence on Mothers' Prenatal Representations of their Infants', Infant Mental Health Journal, 25 (2) pp.79-98
Jacobsen, T., E. Hibbs & U. Ziegenhain, (2000) 'Maternal Expressed Emotion Related to Attachment Disorganization in Early Childhood: A Preliminary Report', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41 (7) pp.899-906
Jick, T. D., (1979) 'Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action', Administrative Science Quarterly, 24 (4) pp.602-611
Johnson, R. B. & A. J. Onwuegbuzie, (2004) 'Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time has Come', Educational Researcher, 33 (7) pp.14-26
Johnson, R. B., A. J. Onwuegbuzie & L. A. Turner, (2007) 'Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research', Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1 (2) pp.112-133
Kelly, K. M., J. Ueng-McHale, J. Grienberger & A. Slade, (2003) Atypical Maternal Behaviors at 4 Months of Age and their Relation to Infant Attachment Disorganization, Poster presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, Florida.
Kennedy, H. & H. Sked (eds.) (2008) Video Interaction Guidance: A Bridge to Better Interactions for Individuals with Communication Impairments, , London: Jessica Kingsley.
Koren-Karie, N. & D. Oppenheim, (2004) The Insightfulness Assessment Coding Manual (1.1), Unpublished manuscript: Center for Research in Child Development, University of Haifa, Israel.
Koren-Karie, N., D. Oppenheim, S. Dolev, E. Sher & A. Etzion-Carasso, (2002) 'Mothers' Insightfulness regarding their Infants' Internal Experience: Relations with Maternal Sensitivity and Infant Attachment.', Developmental Psychology, 38 (4) pp.534-542
Lamb, M. E., (1976) 'Twelve-Month-Olds and their Parents: Interaction in a Laboratory Playroom.', Developmental Psychology, 12 (3) pp.237-244
Lamb, M. E., (1977a) 'The Development of Mother-Infant and Father-Infant Attachments in the Second Year of Life.', Developmental Psychology, 13 (6) pp.637-648
Lamb, M. E., (1977b) 'Father-Infant and Mother-Infant Interaction in the First Year of Life', Child Development, pp.167-181
Levy, D. W. & S. Truman, (2002) Reflective Functioning as Mediator between Drug use, Parenting Stress, and Child Behavior, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada: College on Problems of Drug Dependence Annual Meeting.
Luyten, P., P. Fonagy, B. Lowyck & R. Vermote, (2012) 'The Assessment of Mentalization', Handbook of Mentalizing in Mental Health Practice, pp.43-65
Lyons-Ruth, K., (1999) 'The Two-person Unconscious: Intersubjective Dialogue, Enactive Relational Representation, and the Emergence of New Forms of Relational Organization', Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 19 (4) pp.576-617
Lyons-Ruth, K., E. Bronfman & G. Atwood, (1999) 'A Relational Diathesis Model of Hostile- Helpless States of Mind' in Solomon, J. & C. George (eds.) Attachment Disorganization, New York: Guilford Press, pp.33-70
Lyons-Ruth, K. & D. Jacobvitz, (2008) 'Attachment Disorganization: Genetic Factors, Parenting Contexts, and Developmental Transformation from Infancy to Adulthood.' in Cassidy, J. & P. Shaver (eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications, 2nd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.666-697
Lyons-Ruth, K., S. Melnick, G. Atwood & C. Yellin, (2003a) Pervasively Unintegrated Hostile- helpless States of Mind on the Adult Attachment Interview: Classification and Coding Manual Version 3.0, Unpublished manuscript: Harvard Medical School.
Lyons-Ruth, K. & E. Spielman, (2004) 'Disorganized Infant Attachment Strategies and Helpless- fearful Profiles of Parenting: Integrating Attachment Research with Clinical Intervention', Infant Mental Health Journal, 25 (4) pp.318-335
Lyons-Ruth, K., C. Yellin, S. Melnick & G. Atwood, (2003b) 'Childhood Experiences of Trauma and Loss have Different Relations to Maternal Unresolved and Hostile-Helpless States of Mind on the AAI', Attachment & Human Development, 5 (4) pp.330-352
Lyons-Ruth, K., C. Yellin, S. Melnick & G. Atwood, (2005) 'Expanding the Concept of Unresolved Mental States: Hostile/Helpless States of Mind on the Adult Attachment Interview are Associated with Disrupted Mother-infant Communication and Infant Disorganization', Development and Psychopathology, 17 (1) pp.1-23
Madigan, S., M. J. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. H. Van Ijzendoorn, G. Moran, D. R. Pederson & D. Benoit, (2006) 'Unresolved States of Mind, Anomalous Parental Behavior, and Disorganized Attachment: A Review and Meta-Analysis of a Transmission Gap', Attachment & Human Development, 8 (2) pp.89-111
Madigan, S., G. Moran & D. R. Pederson, (2006) 'Unresolved States of Mind, Disorganized Attachment Relationships, and Disrupted Interactions of Adolescent Mothers and their Infants.', Developmental Psychology, 42 (2) pp.293
Main, M., (1995) 'Recent Studies in Attachment: Overview, with Selected Implications for Clinical Work.' in Goldberg, S., R. Muir & J. Kerr (eds.) Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives, Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press, Inc, pp.407-474
Main, M. & R. Goldwyn, (1994) Adult Attachment Interview Scoring and Classification Manual, Unpublished manuscript: University of California at Berkeley
Main, M. & E. Hesse, (1990) 'Parents' Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are Related to Infant Disorganized Attachment Status: Is Frightened and/Or Frightening Parental Behavior the Linking Mechanism?' in Greenberg, M. T., D. Cicchetti & E. M. Cummings (eds.) Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention, Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press, pp.161-182
Main, M. & J. Solomon, (1990) 'Procedures for Identifying Infants as Disorganized/Disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation', Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention, 1 pp.121-160
Main, M. & D. R. Weston, (1981) 'The Quality of the Toddler's Relationship to Mother and to Father: Related to Conflict Behavior and the Readiness to Establish New Relationships', Child Development, pp.932-940
Meins, E., (1999) 'Sensitivity, Security and Internal Working Models: Bridging the Transmission Gap', Attachment & Human Development, 1 (3) pp.325-342
Meins, E., C. Fernyhough, E. Fradley & M. Tuckey, (2001) 'Rethinking Maternal Sensitivity: Mothers' Comments on Infants' Mental Processes Predict Security of Attachment at 12 Months', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42 (5) pp.637-648
Meins, E., C. Fernyhough, R. Wainwright, D. Clark-Carter, M. Das Gupta, E. Fradley & M. Tuckey, (2003) 'Pathways to Understanding Mind: Construct Validity and Predictive Validity of Maternal Mind-mindedness', Child Development, 74 (4) pp.1194-1211
Miller, A., (1979) 'Depression and Grandiosity as Related Forms of Narcissistic Disturbances', International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 6 pp.61-76
Newberger, C. M., (1980) 'The Cognitive Structure of Parenthood: Designing a Descriptive Measure', New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1980 (7) pp.45-67
Olrick, J., (1992) Maltreating Fathers' Internal Representational Models of Attachment Relationships, Senior Honors Thesis Thesis, Miami, FL.: University of Miami.
Oppenheim, D., S. Dolev, N. Koren-Karie & E. Sher-Censor, (2007) 'Parental Resolution of the Child's Diagnosis and the Parent-Child Relationship' in Oppenheim, D. & D. Goldsmith (eds.) Attachment Theory in Clinical Work with Children: Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice, Paperback edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.109-136
Oppenheim, D., D. Goldsmith & N. Koren-Karie, (2004) 'Maternal Insightfulness and Preschoolers' Emotion and Behavior Problems: Reciprocal Influences in a Therapeutic Preschool Program', Infant Mental Health Journal, 25 (4) pp.352-367
Oppenheim, D. & N. Koren-Karie, (2002) 'Mothers' Insightfulness regarding their Children's Internal Worlds: The Capacity Underlying Secure Child-mother Relationships', Infant Mental Health Journal, 23 (6) pp.593-605
Oppenheim, D. & N. Koren-Karie, (2009) 'Parents' Insightfulness regarding their Children's Internal Worlds: Assessment, Research, and Clinical Implications' in Zeanah, C. H. (ed.) Handbook of Infant Mental Health, 3rd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.266-280
Oppenheim, D., N. Koren-Karie, S. Dolev & N. Yirmiya, (2009) 'Maternal Insightfulness and Resolution of the Diagnosis are Associated with Secure Attachment in Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorders', Child Development, 80 (2) pp.519-527
Out, D., M. J. Bakermans-Kranenburg & M. H. Van IJzendoorn, (2009) 'The Role of Disconnected and Extremely Insensitive Parenting in the Development of Disorganized Attachment: Validation of a New Measure', Attachment & Human Development, 11 (5) pp.419-443
Paquette, D., (2004) 'Theorizing the Father-Child Relationship: Mechanisms and Developmental Outcomes', Human Development, 47 (4) pp.193-219
Paquette, D. & C. Dumont, (2013) 'The Father-Child Activation Relationship, Sex Differences, and Attachment Disorganization in Toddlerhood', Child Development Research, 2013 Available at: www.hindawi.com, Child Development Research
Pianta, R. & R. Marvin, (1993) Manual for Classification of the Reaction to Diagnosis Interview, Unpublished manuscript: University of Virginia.
Pianta, R. C., R. S. Marvin & M. C. Morog, (1999) 'Resolving the Past and Present: Relations with Attachment Organization.' in Attachment Disorganization, New York: Guilford Press, pp.379- 398
Pocock, D., (2010) 'The DMM-Wow! but how to Safely Handle its Potential Strength?', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (3) pp.303-311
Reder, P. & S. Duncan, (1995) 'The Meaning of the Child' in Reder, P. & C. Lucey (eds.) Assessment of Parenting: Psychiatric and Psychological Contributions, Paperback edition, London: Routledge, pp.39-55
Reder, P. & S. Duncan, (1999) Lost Innocents: A Follow-Up Study of Fatal Child Abuse, London: Routledge.
Reder, P., S. Duncan & M. Gray, (1993) Beyond Blame: Child Abuse Tragedies Revisited, London: Routledge.
Rholes, W. S., J. A. Simpson & M. Friedman, (2006) 'Avoidant Attachment and the Experience of Parenting', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32 (3) pp.275-285
Rossman, G. B. & B. L. Wilson, (1985) 'Numbers and Words Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in a Single Large-Scale Evaluation Study', Evaluation Review, 9 (5) pp.627- 643
Schachter, D. L. & E. Tulving, (1994) 'What are the Memory Systems of 1994?' in Schachter, D. L. & E. Tulving (eds.) Memory Systems, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
Schaffer, H. R. & P. E. Emerson, (1964) 'The Development of Social Attachments in Infancy', Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 29 (3) pp.1-77
Schechter, D. S., T. Coots, C. H. Zeanah, M. Davies, S. W. Coates, K. A. Trabka, R. D. Marshall, M. R. Liebowitz & M. M. Myers, (2005) 'Maternal Mental Representations of the Child in an Inner- City Clinical Sample: Violence-Related Posttraumatic Stress and Reflective Functioning', Attachment & Human Development, 7 (3) pp.313-331
Shah, P. E., P. Fonagy & L. Strathearn, (2010) 'Is Attachment Transmitted Across Generations? the Plot Thickens', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (3) pp.329-345
Shmueli-Goetz, Y., M. Target, P. Fonagy & A. Datta, (2008) 'The Child Attachment Interview: A Psychometric Study of Reliability and Discriminant Validity', Developmental Psychology, 44 (4) pp.939-956
Slade, A., (2005) 'Parental Reflective Functioning: An Introduction', Attachment & Human Development, 7 (3) pp.269-281
Slade, A., J. Belsky, J. L. Aber & J. L. Phelps, (1999) 'Mothers' Representations of their Relationships with their Toddlers: Links to Adult Attachment and Observed Mothering.', Developmental Psychology, 35 (3) pp.611-619
Slade, A., E. Bernbach, J. Grienenberger, D. Levy & A. Locker, (2005a) Addendum to Reflective Functioning Scoring Manual, Unpublished manuscript: The Psychological Center, The City College of New York, New York.
Slade, A., L. J. Cohen, L. S. Sadler & M. Miller, (2009) 'The Psychology and Psychopathology of Pregnancy', Handbook of Infant Mental Health, pp.22-39
Slade, A., J. Grienenberger, E. Bernbach, D. Levy & A. Locker, (2005b) 'Maternal Reflective Functioning, Attachment, and the Transmission Gap: A Preliminary Study', Attachment & Human Devlopment, 7 (3) pp.283-298
Solomon, J. & C. George, (1999a) 'The Caregiving System in Mothers of Infants: A Comparison of Divorcing and Married Mothers', Attachment & Human Development, 1 (2) pp.171-190
Solomon, J. & C. George, (1999b) 'The Development of Attachment in Separated and Divorced Families: Effects of Overnight Visitation, Parent and Couple Variables', Attachment & Human Development, 1 (1) pp.2-33
Solomon, J. & C. George, (2000) 'Toward an Integrated Theory of Maternal Caregiving', World Association of Infant Mental Health Handbook, pp.325-367
Solomon, J. & C. George, (2011a) 'Disorganisation of Maternal Caregiving Accross Two Generations: The Origins of Caregiving Helplessness' in Solomon, J. & C. George (eds.) Disorganized Attachment and Caregiving, New York: Guilford Press, pp.25-51
Solomon, J. & C. George, (2011b) 'The Disorganized Attachment-Caregiving System' in Solomon, J. & C. George (eds.) Disorganized Attachment and Caregiving, New York: Guilford Press, pp.3- !
Solomon, J., C. George & A. De Jong, (1995) 'Children Classified as Controlling at Age Six: Evidence of Disorganized Representational Strategies and Aggression at Home and at School', Development and Psychopathology, 7 pp.447-447
Spieker, S. & P. M. Crittenden, (2010) 'Comparing Two Attachment Classification Methods Applied to Preschool Strange Situations', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (1) pp.97-120
Stake, R., (2005) 'Qualitative Case Studies' in Denzin, N. K. & Y. S. Lincoln (eds.) The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, 3rd edition, Thousand Oaks, Calafornia: Sage, pp.443-466
Steele, M., J. Hodges, J. Kaniuk, S. Hillman & K. Henderson, (2003) 'Attachment Representations and Adoption: Associations between Maternal States of Mind and Emotion Narratives in Previously Maltreated Children', Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29 (2) pp.187-205
Steele, M., J. Kaniuk, J. Hodges, K. Asquith, S. Hillman & H. Steele, (2008) 'Measuring Mentalization Across Contexts: Links between Representations of Childhood and Representations of Parenting in an Adoption Sample' in Jurist, E. L., A. Slade & S. Bergner (eds.) Mind to Mind: Infant Research, Neuroscience, and Psychoanalysis, New York: Other Press, pp.115-136
Steele, H. & M. Steele, (2005) 'Understanding and Resolving Emotional Conflict' in Grossmann, K. E., K. Grossmann & E. Waters (eds.) Attachment from Infancy to Adulthood: The Major Longitudinal Studies, New York: Guilford Press, pp.137-164
Steele, H. & M. Steele, (2008) 'On the Origins of Reflective Functioning' in Busch, F. N. (ed.) Mentalization: Theoretical Considerations, Research Findings, and Clinical Implications, New York: Analytic Press, pp.133-156
Strathearn, L., P. Fonagy, J. Amico & P. R. Montague, (2009) 'Adult Attachment Predicts Maternal Brain and Oxytocin Response to Infant Cues', Neuropsychopharmacology, 34 (13) pp.2655-2666
Strathearn, L., J. Li, P. Fonagy & P. R. Montague, (2008) 'What's in a Smile? Maternal Brain Responses to Infant Facial Cues', Pediatrics, 122 (1) pp.40-51
Suchman, N., C. DeCoste, N. Castiglioni, N. Legow & L. Mayes, (2008) 'The Mothers and Toddlers Program: Preliminary Findings from an Attachment-Based Parenting Intervention for Substance- Abusing Mothers.', Psychoanalytic Psychology, 25 (3) pp.499-517
Suchman, N. E., C. DeCoste, N. Castiglioni, T. J. McMahon, B. Rounsaville & L. Mayes, (2010a) 'The Mothers and Toddlers Program, an Attachment-Based Parenting Intervention for Substance using Women: Post-Treatment Results from a Randomized Clinical Pilot', Attachment & Human Development, 12 (5) pp.483-504
Suchman, N. E., C. DeCoste, D. Leigh & J. Borelli, (2010b) 'Reflective Functioning in Mothers with Drug use Disorders: Implications for Dyadic Interactions with Infants and Toddlers', Attachment & Human Development, 12 (6) pp.567-585
Suchman, N. E., C. DeCoste, D. Leigh & J. Borelli, (2010c) 'Reflective Functioning in Mothers with Drug use Disorders: Implications for Dyadic Interactions with Infants and Toddlers', Attachment & Human Development, 12 (6) pp.567-585
Suchman, N., C. DeCoste & L. Mayes, (2009) 'The Mothers and Toddlers Program: An Attachment- Based Intervention for Mothers in Substance Abuse Treatment' in Zeanah, C. H. (ed.) Handbook of Infant Mental Health, 3rd edition, New York: Guilford Press, pp.485-499
Svanberg, P. O., (2009) 'Promoting a Secure Attachment through Early Screening and Interventions (Chapter 9)' in Barlow, J. & P. O. Svanberg (eds.) Keeping the Baby in Mind: Infant Mental Health in Practice, London: Routledge, pp.100-113
Svanberg, P., L. Mennet & S. Spieker, (2010) 'Promoting a Secure Attachment: A Primary Prevention Practice Model', Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15 (3) pp.363-378
Theran, S. A., A. A. Levendosky, G. Anne Bogat & A. C. Huth-Bocks, (2005) 'Stability and Change in Mothers' Internal Representations of their Infants Over Time', Attachment & Human Devlopment, 7 (3) pp.253-268
Van IJzendoorn, M., (1995) 'Adult Attachment Representations, Parental Responsiveness, and Infant Attachment: A Meta-Analysis on the Predictive Validity of the Adult Attachment Interview.', Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3) pp.387-403
Van IJzendoorn, M. H. & M. S. Wolff, (1997) 'In Search of the Absent Father-Meta-Analyses of Infant-Father Attachment: A Rejoinder to our Discussants', Child Development, 68 (4) pp.604- 609
Vygotsky, L. S., (1967) 'Play and its Role in the Mental Development of the Child', Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, 5 (3) pp.6-18
West, M. L. & A. Sheldon-Keller, (1994) Patterns of Relating: An Adult Attachment Perspective, New York: Guilford Press.
White, M. & D. Epston, (1990) Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends, New York: WW Norton & Company.
Winnicott, D., (1967) 'The Mirror-Role of the Mother and Family in Child Development' in Logan, P. (ed.) The Predicament of the Family: A Psycho-Analytical Symposium, London: Hogarth Press, pp.26-33
Wood, B. L., E. Hargreaves & M. N. Marks, (2004) 'Using the Working Model of the Child Interview to Assess Postnatally Depressed Mothers' Internal Representations of their Infants: A Brief Report', Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 22 (1) pp.41-44
Zeanah, C., (2007) 'Constructing a Relationship Formulation for Mother and Child: Clinical Application of the Working Model of the Child Interview' in Oppenheim, D., et al (ed.)