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American higher education rose to fame and fortune during the Cold War, when both student enrollments and funded research shot upward. Prior to World War II, the federal government showed little interest in universities and provided little support. The war spurred a large investment in defense-based scientific research in universities for reasons of both efficiency and necessity: universities had the researchers and infrastructure in place and the government needed to gear up quickly. With the emergence of the Cold War in 1947, the relationship continued and federal investment expanded exponentially. Unlike a hot war, the Cold War offered a long timeline for global competition between communism and democracy, which meant institutionalizing the wartime model of federally funded research and building a set of structures for continuing investment in knowledge whose military value was unquestioned. At the same time, the communist challenge provided a strong rationale for sending a large number of students to college. These increased enrollments would educate the skilled workers needed by the Cold War economy, produce informed citizens to combat the Soviet menace, and demonstrate to the world the broad social opportunities available in a liberal democracy. The result of this enormous public investment in higher education has become known as the golden age of the American university.
Situating Cognitive Science after 1945
Human Arenas, 2024
The paper attempts to place the emergence of cognitive science (CS) as an interdisciplinary research program in historical context. A broad overview of the institutional and intellectual situations during the early postwar period is presented, focusing primarily on psychology and artificial intelligence (AI). From an institutional perspective, the paper shows that although computers and computer science were closely linked with weapons research during World War II, the postwar creation of cognitive science had no military connection, but was largely enabled by small grants from private foundations, though the RAND Corporation was involved to a limited extent. From an epistemic perspective, the paper shows: (1) that neobehaviourist learning theory was not replaced by, but flourished parallel to cognition-oriented psychology in the 1950s, because they were located in different sub-disciplines; (2) that the key theoretical inputs into CS were developed separately at first, and each group remained affiliated with the discipline or complex of disciplines from which it came. A certain tension remained at the core of the project between the machine dreams of the emerging AI community and the idea of autonomous mental processes central to cognitive psychology.
Building the Second Mind: 1956 and the Origins of Artificial Intelligence Computing
2012
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2013
Improvements in the 1970s invert these and put the hardware chapter first Chapter 11. AI at MIT in the 1970s: The Semantic Fallout of NLR and Vision Chapter 12. Hardware, Software, and Applications in the 1970s Chapter 13. Big Ideas in the 1970s Chapter 14. Conclusion: the Status Quo in 1980 Chapter 15. Acknowledgements Bibliography Endnotes Inside the field of AI itself, there was a will but no easily visible way to move from very simple problems to bigger domains. An immense and consequential event took place early on in this history. The onslaught of monies shoveled at AI (and other computing disciplines) following the 1961 selection of ARPA to be the pre-eminent research agency for funding computer science was a great windfall. It could be compared to a television or movie sight gag in which the door is opened and a flood ensues, or Willy Wonka's Golden Ticket. We commence by presenting the framing facts of the integrated circuit (IC), which has allowed computers that offer bigger, better, faster, and more computing, and ARPA, which footed the tab for its development. The 1958 foundation of ARPA, and its immeasurable contributions in funding much AI-related research during these two decades, are discussed as it specifically relates to AI's agenda (Chapters Two and Three). The wide dispersal of improvements to input-output, memory, and storage are discussed in Chapter Four.
Scientific American MIND, 2006
"By marrying psychology with archaeology, scientists are unearthing how thought evolved."
Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 2008
In the Fall of 2007, ten neuroscientists published a proposal for an interdisciplinary research initiative, the Decade of the Mind, that would focus on four "broad but intertwined areas": mental health, research on high-level cognitive functions, education, and computational applications (such as intelligent machines). I review the basic ideas behind the proposal and discuss the four proposed areas of research. I argue that for research on higher cognitive functions and in particular, for research and practice in education, the Decade of the Mind is a welcome initiative that may change our lives for the better. Therefore, the proposal, which is scientifically interdisciplinary in nature, has to be politically international. On May 21st and 22nd 2007, the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study at George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, hosted a Symposium entitled Decade of the Mind. Its mission statement was later published as a letter in Science magazine [1]. What was proposed? Why was it proposed? Why now, and does this make sense? Ten eminent neuroscientists signed the letter in Science calling for an interdisciplinary research initiative "across disparate fields such as cognitive science, medicine, neuroscience, psychology, mathematics, engineering, and computer science." The authors propose that this research initiative should focus on four areas, i.e., mental health, research on high-level cognitive functions, education, and computational applications (such as intelligent machines). The agenda proposed is based upon the assumption that "such an understanding will have a revolutionary impact on national interests in science, medicine, economic growth, security, and well-being," and, in consequence, "improve our lives and our children's lives." And why now? Because "a deep scientific understanding of how the mind perceives, thinks, and acts is within our grasp."