Development and Validation of the Motivation for Solitude Scale Article Summary (original) (raw)
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Journal of Adolescence, 2019
Introduction Motivation is an overlooked but crucial factor in determining whether solitude is psychologically beneficial or risky. This paper describes the development and validation of the Motivation for Solitude Scale – Short-Form (MSS-SF), a measure grounded in Self-Determination Theory that differentiates between intrinsic versus extrinsic motivations for solitude. Methods Emerging adult (N = 803) and adolescent (N = 176) participants were recruited in four successive samples from the United States for the purposes of scale development and validation. Participants completed an on-line survey that included the MSS-SF and various well-being and personality measures. Results & Conclusions Confirmatory Factor Analyses resulted in a two-factor solution, self-determined solitude (SDS) and not self-determined solitude (NSDS), and showed the MSS-SF to be reliable with adolescents and emerging adults, with satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity. Engaging in solitude for extrinsic, not self-determined reasons was associated with loneliness, social anxiety, and depressive symptomatology; in contrast, solitude chosen for intrinsic, self-determined reasons was positively correlated with well-being, for emerging adults in particular. The MSS-SF goes beyond preference for solitude to distinguish two distinctly different motivations for solitude, and in so doing, allows researchers to better understand the affordances and risks of being alone for adolescents and emerging adults. Keywords: Solitude; Loneliness; Self-Determination Theory; Motivation; Adolescents; Emerging Adults
A Lonely Idea: Solitude's Separation from Psychological Research and Theory
Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 2014
The authors describe "solitude theory," a "lonely" branch of psychological research and theory, at present cut off from reigning contemporary viewpoints, in particular attachment theory. After presenting the history and present state of solitude theory, the authors argue that the seeming contradictions between solitude theory and attachment-centered theories are based on a certain definition of solitude-seeking behaviors, one that emphasizes "separation." In contrast, the authors suggest an integrative mode that acknowledges a paradox and a developmental dialectic at play between solitude and relatedness, the product of which is a state of health requiring experiences of both. Stated simply, a positive experience of solitude is only possible when one is securely attached and secure attachment requires the potential for aloneness.
Seeking more solitude: Conceptualization, assessment, and implications of aloneliness
Personality and Individual Differences, 2019
Aloneliness is conceptualized as the negative feelings that arise from the perception that one is not spending enough time alone. We developed and validated an assessment of aloneliness and explored its role in the links between motivations for solitude, time spent alone, and wellbeing. Studies 1 (N = 643) and 2 (N = 379) described the construction and validation of the Solitude and Aloneness Scale (SolAS). Study 3 (N = 418) examined the role of aloneliness as a mediator of the links between motivations for solitude and wellbeing. Study 4 (N = 967) explored aloneliness as a moderator of links between time alone and depressive symptoms. Cumulatively, results supported the validity and theoretical utility of aloneliness in elucidating the complex associations being solitude and wellbeing.
South African Journal of Psychology, 2017
With expanding interest in the role of solitude in healthy psychological development during adolescence, there is a need for psychometrically sound solitude measures. The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Motivation for Solitude Scale–Short Form by evaluating its internal consistency, factor structure, and convergent and discriminant validity using a group of South African adolescents ( n = 818). Results revealed satisfactory internal consistency for each of the two subscales, as well as good convergent and discriminant validity. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-factor higher order model as providing the best fit. The Motivation for Solitude Scale–Short Form seems to be a valid measure of motivation for solitude among South African adolescents and provides an avenue for further research on the role of solitude in adolescent well-being.
How To Be Alone: An Investigation of Solitude Skills
2017
Despite the documented benefits of volitional solitude for adolescents and adults, little is known about solitude skills, a term that has been mentioned only in passing in the literature. Psychologists have neither named nor described these skills, despite claims that such skills have important clinical and educational applications. To fill this gap in the literature, this dissertation presents findings from an exploratory study that interviewed eight adult creative writers to discern what skills they employed to reap the benefits of solitude. Qualitative methodology utilizing Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis yielded evidence for eight solitude skills, organized within two superordinate themes. Four skills comprised the theme Connection with Self: enjoyment of solitary activities; emotional regulation; introspection; and noticing and heeding internal signals to enter solitude; and four skills comprised the theme Proactive Approach: carving out time for solitude; negotiating with important others for time in solitude; being mindful of how time in solitude was spent; and balancing the needs for solitude and for sociability. In addition, themes from the qualitative analysis were consistent with several assertions about solitude in the psychological literature: solitude is a biological need; solitude supports identity development as well as intimacy with others; a preference for solitude reflects a pleasure in solitary activities rather than an aversion towards people; and solitude promotes happiness in the eudaimonic, rather than hedonic, sense. Finally, the two superordinate themes categorizing these solitude skills converge to support what may be the fundamental function of solitude: facilitating a relationship with the self. Identifying these solitude skills represents an important contribution to alone theory, because they reveal important processes necessary for solitude to be experienced constructively, or even experienced at all. Empirically testing this preliminary set of solitude skills with other populations paves the way for creating and adapting solitude skills curricula for educational, clinical, and individual use.
Solitude Experiences: Varieties, Settings, and Individual Differences
Solitude may be positive or negative, depending on situational and personal factors. From prior research, nine types of solitude were identified. Based on data from a questionnaire study of undergraduate participants, factor analysis suggests that these nine types can be reduced to three dimensions, two positive and one negative. These are, respectively, Inner-Directed Solitude (characterized by self-discovery and inner peace), Outer-Directed Solitude (characterized by intimacy and spirituality), and Loneliness. Personality and value correlates, as well as situational correlates, of the various types of solitude also were explored.
Positive solitude : an examination of individuals who spend frequent time alone
2010
An abundance of empirical research indicates that individuals who spend frequent time alone are less happy than those who are more socially active (Diener & Seligman, 2002). In mass media and popular culture these individuals are commonly referred to as "Loners." The current study investigates if some individuals who spend frequent time alone report average or higher than average ratings of happiness despite the contradictory trend in research and the negative loner stereotype. The study also provides an empirical description of the loner construct by examining a group of self-declared loners. Five hundred and thirty eight subjects who reported spending frequent time alone completed the Subjective Happiness Scale, the UCLA Loneliness Scale (3), the Social Phobia Inventory, the E-scale of the EPQR-A, the Preference for Solitude Scale and the Relationship Questionnaire. It was found that unhappiness and poor well-being do not necessarily accompany spending frequent time alone, even for individuals who identify as loners. While the majority of participants who reported spending frequent time alone also reported poor levels of well-being, 21.7% of the study's entire population as well as 20.6% of self-declared loners within that group reported average or high scores of happiness on the Subjective Happiness Scale. Furthermore, they did not report stereotypical symptoms such as high rates of loneliness or social phobia. In addition to challenging the prevailing loner stereotype, these results raise questions about the generalizability of the established correlation between spending frequent time alone and poor well-being. Theoretically relevant constructs such as loneliness, social phobia and extraversion will be discussed. Attention is called for a deeper and more balanced examination of individuals who spend frequent time alone.
Solitude as a Problem of Human's Mature Choice
Beytulhikme An International Journal of Philosophy, 2020
The multiple contexts of solitude and its coherence with the constant of mature life choices are considered in the article. The phenomenon of solitude is presented in light of the embodiment of value determinant. The authors' understanding of solitude as spiritual handwriting is demonstrated. The polarity of solitude's representation as an issue of ability or inability to make a choice is considered. The authors' classification of different contextual types of solitude accompanied by a focus on values as a result of life choice is provided. The mutual influence of maturity and solitude as a potential stimulating source if creativity and self-assertion are actualized. The phenomenon of solitude is universal and inherent in the philosophy of life; solitude as a multi-contextual phenomenon characterizes human beings in the social environment. Nevertheless, having multidimensional, controversial and inexhaustible nature, it can be a creative or devastating factor. The Ukrainian context of solitude is briefly described.
Solitude may be a very positive and constructive experience, whenever it is a desirable choice of the way of life or otherwise it may be a distressing experience, inducing negative feelings, whenever it is externally imposed. In order to understand the polymorphic influence of the solitude upon the inner life of the soul it is essential to analyze all the causative factors of solitude and the personality’s profile of the person who lives in solitude. For the majority of human beings the solitude is a painful experience, inducing sadness, anxiety and fear, though for others is a chance for spiritual elevation, self-knowledge, interior peace and serenity, happiness becoming also a way to the truth. The imposed solitude or isolation is always a painful condition inducing many psychological reactions. It is an unpleasant experience, demanding a strong personality profile to be sustained, without vulnerable consequences upon the psychosomatic equilibrium of the suffering person. The feeling of the psychological isolation is more depressive in metropolitan areas, where the incorporation of the person in the body of the society is practically difficult. The isolation during childhood and adolescence is a traumatic experience for the children, which is commonly caused by the incompatibility in the family, due to many contradictions, disputes and ideological differences between the family’s members. Children under isolation have poor performances in the school, as a rule, due to inadequate attention, high self-insecurity and low self-esteem. The adolescents can easily distinguish the big difference among the imposed social isolation and the beneficial, instructive effects of the voluntary solitude. Phenomena of self-rejection, which occur occasionally in adolescence living in isolation, are more frequent in females than in males and are associated with psychosomatic phenomena, such as headaches, anorexia, weakness. The solitude is particularly painful experience in senility. It is frequently associated with the physical weakness, diseases, socio-economic decline, mental decline, emotional isolation due to widowhood, which are very serious reasons for the enforcement of the feelings of insecurity and depression. Aged persons, who are admitted in institutions for elderly people or nursing homes, feel isolated totally, living in condition of emotional starvation. The most tragic isolation happens in cases of old demented persons. That isolation has serious psychosomatic dimensions. In cases of advanced dementia the patients are imprisoned in a “timeless time”, in a “vacuum space” and in a “functionless reality”. This style of life causes a rapid deterioration of the mental faculties due to limited input of informations and lack of motives and exertions. The voluntary solitude may be beneficial to healthy individuals if the principal purpose is the endeavor of spiritual culture, search for the existential authenticity and search for the real way to the truth with apathy and peace. Persons who may recognize the beneficial contribution of the solitude for meditation, selfknowledge, self-control, inner peace and search of the authentic existential selfhood, feel happiness and contemplation. The real happiness occurs whenever the person achieves to have the experience of real, profound and authentic prayer in solitude.
Solitude as a state of positive aloneness in childhood and adolescence
If solitude, as a state of being alone, is a basic human need equally important to attachment and belonging, it is necessary to explore its multiple positive contributions to children and adolescent development. However, this type of solitude is a relatively neglected research area in these age periods. Research evidence on the existence, significance, and developmental course of positive aloneness experiences is the focus of this chapter beginning with some clarifications on the various concepts of aloneness (i.e., loneliness, aloneness, solitude, attitude toward aloneness, privacy). Next, research is reviewed on assessment of aloneness and solitude; understanding and content of solitude; assessment of aloneness and solitude; amount, context, and, affect of time alone; attitude toward aloneness; the links between solitude and adjustment; the associations between solitude and strategies of coping with loneliness; and the associations between solitude and other aloneness concepts. Data on gender differences also are discussed. Finally, suggestions are offered for future research on this type of solitude in childhood and adolescence. . However, relatively little research evidence exists on solitude, i.e., the state of being alone, and more specifically on children and adolescent time spent alone, understanding of solitude, attitude toward aloneness, ability to be alone, and positive aloneness. Also, only a few studies attempt to disentangle the complex links between the various aloneness experiences in children and adolescents by examining, for example, the association between being alone and feeling lonely. These empirical investigations are reviewed here, with the aim of providing a clearer picture of the advancements and the gaps in the research literature. More specifically, after some conceptual clarifications, research is reviewed on understanding and nature of solitude; assessment Solitude 169 of aloneness and solitude; amount, context, and effect of time alone; attitude toward aloneness; the links between solitude and adjustment; the associations between solitude and strategies of coping with loneliness; and the associations between solitude and other aloneness concepts. Finally, suggestions are offered for future research on solitude in childhood and adolescence will be offered.