Bicultural Socialization Practices in the Netherlands, Norway, and the United States of America with Children Adopted from India (original) (raw)
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Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology; 20 (2), 231-243. doi: 10.1037/a0035324, 2014
A cross-national sample of 622 internationally adopted children from India with White parents in The Netherlands (n = 409), Norway (n = 146), and the United States (n = 67) was used to contrast country-specific bicultural socialization (BCS) practices among families of transracial intercountry adoption. The 3 countries vary in their degrees of minority (US > Netherlands > Norway) and Indian populations (US > Norway > Netherlands). The current study examined parental survey trends among BCS practices, children’s negative encounters about adoption, racial and positive discrimination, and parental worry about these issues. Country-specific differences were revealed: The United States and Norway (greatest Indian populations) reported the greatest smilarity in BCS practices, classmates being a source of negative reactions/racial discrimination, and parental worry. The American sample encountered greater negative reactions to adoption from others; Dutch children experienced the least negative reactions from others overall, yet as in the United States (samples with the greatest minority heterogeneity) they still noted significant experiences of racial discrimination. Country-specific sociopolitical perceptions about adoption, ethnicity/race, and im- migration are considered as factors that may have been used to inform parenting practices that facilitate children’s biculturalism into family life (i.e., adoptive family stigma, percentages of Indian/minority populations, immigration policy trends). Concluding, cross-national research such as the current study may help intercountry adoption policymakers and practitioners to better understand and inform BCS practices in adoptive families. Keywords: intercountry adoption, transracial adoption, bicultural socialization, racial discrimination, India
Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 2010
Intercountry adoption has been, and continues to be, a popular method of family formation worldwide, as well as a means of providing homes for children who would otherwise remain parentless. The popularity of this social welfare practice suggests that countless families continue to face the challenges of raising children whose ethnicities derive from two different ethnic backgrounds. Yet, virtually no research exists on the development of a bicultural ethnic identity in intercountry adoption. Instead, research has focused on the importance of birth-culture socialization, or the lack thereof. Faced with too little direct research on the subject, this paper synthesizes and critically reviews literature from the ethnic socialization, biracial, acculturation, and adoption fields. The aim was twofold: (1) extrapolate key elements of the literature that inform on the development of biculturalism in intercountry adoptions; and (2) identify gaps in the literature. Suggestions for future research and practice are offered.
Child & Family Social Work, 2013
We examined the perceptions of adoption and related issues in 68 families with internationally adopted children in Spain (48 transracial and 20 same-race adoptions). The adopted children, between the ages of 8 and 12 years, and their parents answered questions about the children's thoughts and feelings about adoption. Descriptive data and scores on four scales -family, adoption, birth culture identity and discrimination -were obtained. Compared with same-race adoptees, transracial adoptees scored significantly higher on birth culture identity and perceived discrimination. High levels of convergence between the children's and parents' viewpoints on the experiences of adoption and related issues were found. Nevertheless, the adopted children scored higher than their parents on birth culture identity, suggesting that at this age adoptive parents may underestimate their children's connection to their cultural origins. In contrast, the samerace adoptees scored significantly lower on perceived discrimination than their mothers. We conclude that at this age adoptive parents should acknowledge their adopted child's daily-life experiences regarding cultural identity with the birth country and discrimination.
Cultural Socialization Practices in Domestic and International Transracial Adoption
Adoption Quarterly, 2010
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Factors Related to Transracial Adoptive Parents’ Levels of Cultural Competence
Adoption Quarterly, 2008
The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship of parents' level of cultural competence with several factors. Exploratory regression analysis was utilized with a sample of transracial adoptive (TRA) parents of children born in Korea and China (n = 912). Results indicated that 16.2% of variance in a measure of TRA parents' cultural competence was explained by families' participation in postadoption support groups; parent's sex, that is, female; traveling to the child's country of origin for adoption; postadoption contact with adoption professionals; absence of biological children in the family; and families' annual income over $75,000. Conclusions and implications for practice and research are discussed.
Activities that promote ethnic identity development in transnational adoptees
2018
Transnational adoption is a common practice in the United States, with American families adopting hundreds of thousands of children born in other countries over the last 50 years. Most of these adoptions represent transcultural and transracial adoptions, and both families and adoptees frequently engage in cultural and identity exploration activities, such as adoption camps, birth country travel, education classes, holiday celebrations, promoting friendships with other adoptees, and birth country language learning. This dissertation sought to explore the impact that these different exploration strategies had on ethnic identity resolution of adoptees. Following a Multiple Article Path (MAP) format, this dissertation utilized data from three separate studies to explore this question. Chapter 2 incorporated mixed methods research with 22 adopted Chinese teens attending an adoption camp. Chapter 3 was a qualitative study with 10 adult adoptees from a variety of different birth countries exploring their perspectives on different identity exploration activities. Chapter 4 was a quantitative study of adult adoptees, looking for correlations between a resolved sense of ethnic identity and birth country travel, language learning, and friendship with other adoptees. Key findings from these studies include (a) adoptees value adoption camp, and that friendships with other adoptees are important; (b) travel to one's birth country is important to many adoptees, and the meaning and value of travel can vary over time; and (c) birth country language learning is positively correlated with resolved ethnic identity. To my daughter Molly, for being the best thing that ever happened to your dad and me. I am with you now and always as you explore, have questions, and figure out what being adopted, American, and Chinese means for you.
Reclaiming Culture: Reculturation of Transracial and International Adoptees
Journal of Counseling & Development, 2012
The adoption of infants, children, and adolescents across racial and cultural groups has been practiced for over 50 years in the United States and abroad. Approximately 80% to 85% of international adoptions are transracial (U.S. Department of State, Office of Children's Issues, n.d.), and approximately 40% of all adoptions in the United States are transracial ("Data Reportedly Show High Rate," 2011). Despite the prevalence and visibility of transracial and international adoptions, scholars lack a full understanding and awareness of the identity experiences of these adopted individuals, particularly regarding the complex interplay between race, ethnicity, and culture. Although the construct of race is generally seen as biopsychosocially constructed and the construct of ethnicity is increasingly more commonly used in the literature, the construct of race is apt for analyzing transracial adoption given its reference to visible differences and race-based socialization (Richardson, Bethea, Hayling, & Williamson-Taylor, 2010), whereas the construct of ethnicity references a group classification based on social and cultural heritage (practices that are often handed down through generations; Casas, 1984). Throughout this article, we present identity issues related to transracial and international adoption. Transracial adoption refers to the adoption of a child of one race by a parent or parents of a different race than that of the child. The majority of adoptive parents in transracial adoptions are White, whereas the children they adopt are children of color born either within the United States (domestic adoption) or abroad (international adoption). This article refers to people who were adopted transracially as transracial adoptees (TRAs), those
Adjustment of international adoptees: Implications for practice and a future research agenda
Children and Youth Services Review, 2006
Studies suggest that international (intercountry) adolescent adoptees have lower self-esteem and are at higher risk for developing severe mental health problems and social maladjustment than children of the same age living with their biological families in the general population. Although most U.S. studies report positive outcomes for international adoption, studies also report that many international adoptees are confused about their racial and/or ethnic identity and face difficulties in handling bias and discrimination. International adoptees may have a better adjustment if their adoptive parents are sensitive and appropriately responsive to issues related to their adopted child's race, ethnicity, and culture. This paper reviews the state of our current knowledge about how and why some international adoptees adjust better than others and suggests theoretically grounded avenues for future research. D