From Sex Work to Entertainment and Trafficking: Implications of a Paradigm Shift for Sexuality, Law and Activism in Cambodia (original) (raw)
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Social Sciences, 2017
Cambodia has experienced rapid economic development and increased globalization in the last two decades, which have influenced changes in sexual attitudes and politics. Yet deeply embedded patriarchal structures that promote adherence to traditional values, gender binaries, and sexual purity of women impede progress in the recognition of the rights of sex/entertainment workers and LGBT communities. Using the framework of sexual humanitarianism, this paper outlines the ways in which these constraints are compounded by two dominant conflicting narratives that place these groups as either at-risk and vulnerable or socially deviant, and deemed in need of interventions that protect and control. Drawing on over a decade of empirical research on the sex/entertainment industries, and broader gender/sexual landscape in Cambodia, as well as current social activism of the authors, this paper also describes the ways LGBT and sex worker communities are engaging in shared organizing and self-advocacy as strategies to address their needs and the consequences left in the wake of sexual humanitarian interventions. In order to contextualize their deeply-rooted legacy in Cambodia, the paper also provides an overview of past and contemporary gender/sexual norms and diversity, and concludes with a call for governments and policymakers to expand support for grassroots movements and to listen more closely to the voices of LGBT and sex worker communities so that the political and social needs of these groups can be addressed.
Sexuality and the Law: Case Studies from Cambodia, Egypt, Nepal and South Africa
2014
IDS is a charitable company limited by guarantee and registered in England (No. 877338). The IDS programme on Strengthening Evidence-based Policy works across seven key themes. Each theme works with partner institutions to co-construct policy-relevant knowledge and engage in policy-influencing processes. This material has been developed under the Sexuality, Poverty and Law theme. The material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government's official policies. AG Level 2 Output ID: 212 1 In several parts of the world, unlike in European and North American contexts, sexual desire does not define types of people. For instance, in South Asia, men might have sex with other men but not think of themselves as any different for that fact. There are thus movements that go beyond identity-based politics and address the politics of sexuality beyond simply the question of 'equality' between different 'sexuality types' (khanna 2009). The term 'queer' is a more appropriate descriptor of such movements and activism. 2 While Evans was particularly concerned with membership of sexual communities, and with the rights and privileges associated with individuals' moral worth as consumers, others such as Giddens (1992) and Weeks (1995) have sought to explore citizenship through the lens of sexual intimacy. 3 'Projects of citizenship' refers to those interventions and activism that are concerned with the attainment of rights, entitlements and resources accorded to citizens in the juridical register, i.e. the acknowledgement of the subject as citizen.
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 2023
Purpose – The essay aims to suggest policies that can help strategically deconstruct and dereproduce the establishment of (child) sexual exploitation in Thailand and Cambodia in phases, for the purpose of upholding child and human rights and rebranding the global image of these two regional commercial sex hubs in the long term. Design/methodology/approach – This essay is constructed based on the theoretical framework of the social control and general strain theories. Supported by the theories, the essay examines what are the socioeconomic determinants driving the prevalence of the (child) commercial sex industry in Thailand and Cambodia. Here the essay highlights and summarises how the (child) commercial sex industry has been constructed and reproduced. Next, the essay presents the existing policy gaps in relation to (child) sex tourism and sex exploitation. Last, and more importantly, the essay delivers perspectives on how Thai and Cambodian lawmakers and policymakers should respond to the severe societal problems of (child) sex trafficking and prostitution in relation to the prevailing sex tourism. Findings – At the national level, Bangkok and Phnom Penh have an urgent need to rebrand their countries, despite partially allowing commercial sex activities. Moreover, to promote gender equality, Bangkok and Phnom Penh should redistribute their education and occupational opportunities, enabling more school-aged girls or work-aged women to obtain a fairer share of life chances for self-empowerment. At the regional level, Bangkok and Phnom Penh have to tighten regulations against (child) sex exploitation. At the community level, the promotion of community policing can be conducive to minimising any prostitution activities. At the family level, more positive socialisation should be exercised. When more children, including girls, are subsidised to enter school, and are positively parented, there are more educational opportunities for school-aged cohorts. Originality/value – This essay contains scholarly originality and significance in the presentation of the socioeconomic construction of (child) sexual exploitation, and its relationship to sex tourism and (child) prostitution in Thai and Cambodian contexts, grounded in up-to-date, relevant sociological arguments. A major area that identifies the originality of this essay is the examination of existing, relevant policy gaps in a timely fashion, and correspondingly, the suggestion of policy development that helps deconstruct and deproduce (child) sexual exploitation at the national, regional, community and family levels.
Selling sex in unsafe spaces: sex work risk environments in Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Harm Reduction Journal, 2011
Background: The risk environment framework provides a valuable but under-utilised heuristic for understanding environmental vulnerability to HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers. Brothels have been shown to be safer than street-based sex work, with higher rates of consistent condom use and lower HIV prevalence. While entertainment venues are also assumed to be safer than street-based sex work, few studies have examined environmental influences on vulnerability to HIV in this context. Methods: As part of the Young Women's Health Study, a prospective observational study of young women (15-29 years) engaged in sex work in Phnom Penh, we conducted in-depth interviews (n = 33) to explore vulnerability to HIV/STI and related harms. Interviews were conducted in Khmer by trained interviewers, transcribed and translated into English and analysed for thematic content. Results: The intensification of anti-prostitution and anti-trafficking efforts in Cambodia has increased the number of women working in entertainment venues and on the street. Our results confirm that street-based sex work places women at risk of HIV/STI infection and identify significant environmental risks related to entertainment-based sex work, including limited access to condoms and alcohol-related intoxication. Our data also indicate that exposure to violence and interactions with the police are mediated by the settings in which sex is sold. In particular, transacting sex in environments such as guest houses where there is little or no oversight in the form of peer or managerial support or protection, may increase vulnerability to HIV/STI. Conclusions: Entertainment venues may also provide a high risk environment for sex work. Our results indicate that strategies designed to address HIV prevention among brothel-based FSWs in Cambodia have not translated well to street and entertainment-based sex work venues in which increasing numbers of women are working. There is an urgent need for targeted interventions, supported by legal and policy reforms, designed to reduce the environmental risks of sex work in these settings. Future research should seek to investigate sex work venues as risk environments, explore the role of different business models in mediating these environments, and identify and quantify exposure to risk in different occupational settings.
The overall situation in Cambodia for human trafficking and sexual exploitation of women and children is dire: rather than decreasing it appears to be on the increase. Although there is recent attention to addressing various aspects of the issue/s, even for the Khmer majority population there are numerous ‘push factors’ (such as widespread poverty, high unemployment, low levels of literacy, and few income earning opportunities for women) that make sale of children for labour and prostitution serious considerations for many families. There are relatively few resources available for victim support, a weak and not well understood or enforced legal framework for prosecution of perpetrators, and many cultural traits that conspire to sanction trafficking and commercial sex. The situation for Vietnamese living in urban Cambodia vis-à-vis trafficking and sexual exploitation is even more difficult than for Khmer, as the Vietnamese are a marginalised minority. Some services area available for victims of trafficking, regardless of age or ethnicity; however these are not always well-equipped to accommodate Vietnamese. The concept of ‘poverty’ emerges quickly in any discussion about “why families would sell their children” as one variable, and not necessarily even the primary consideration. It is always the result of a combination of factors. This research did not identify one clear, single, or overriding ‘tipping’ point. Findings from this research corroborate previous research publications on vulnerability factors that influence the sale of children into commercial sex. One difference in this research is the weight of particular variables exacerbated by the fact of being Vietnamese in Cambodia, which is itself a vulnerability factor. The major risk factors (named as such because they surfaced most frequently in conversation with respondents) among the Vietnamese communities surveyed in this research—the presence of which will make the sale of a child more likely—appear to be as follows: crisis/extra-ordinary expenses; debt; the phenomenon of ‘normalisation’; materialism; family honour; cultural perceptions of the value/place of women. All must be considered to occur within the context of general poverty and the psychological burden of uncertainty and insecurity accompanying it; as well as with recognition for the political uncertainty that characterises the lives of the Vietnamese minority in urban Cambodia. The research considers too the extent to which the social context may bear some responsibility for the ‘epidemic’ of sale of children for sexual exploitation. The research suggests that nearly half of families do sell a girlchild (a ‘best estimate’ is 30-40 percent) for sex; and that more families consider this as an option than actually follow-through with the sale. It appears that under-age girls are more likely to be sold for virginity (then return home), than sold into longer-term prostitution/brothel work. Longer-term decisions seem to be the purview of older girls/women. Community perceptions of prostitution as a viable income source seem to be grounded in a certain pragmatism and resignation, rather than wholehearted acceptance of the work as legitimate, constructive, or desirable. There is a very high level of awareness among children and adults about the presence of trafficking (sale of girl-children for sex), and prostitution more generally. Many children expressed that they felt themselves in danger of being sold or otherwise forced into involvement in the sex trade: a few said if someone did try to force them they would ‘fight’ but the majority said they would not like it, but would be resigned to going.
Exposed: The Scandalous Story of Sex Work in Cambodia
This essay examines the recent scandal that engulfed the Cambodian anti trafficking activist, Somaly Mam, who was accused of fabricating tales of abduction and prostitution in her memoir, Le Silence de l’innocence (2005). In my reading of Mam’s memoir, I focus on the tropes of silence and voice in the narrative as well as in the context of its initial reception and eventual denunciation in order to offer some preliminary thoughts on the appeal and limitations of the testimonial narrative within the global rescue industry. I finish by examining the implications of Mam’s narrative and its alleged falsehoods for the women on whose behalf she claims to speak. Rather than attempt to determine whether Mam has told the truth, I take this scandal as an occasion to explore the problem of evidentiary versus narrative truths in the literary testimony and the ways in which various truths are mobilized and silenced when the literary testimony intersects with the human rights campaign.
Sexuality, Poverty and the Law: A Case Study Approach for Exploring Avenues of Change
There is increasing pressure in international development to demonstrate that aid spending has an impact. This includes spending on policy research. While there is much debate about appropriate methods and evidence for demonstrating impact, ‘a more recent development is the movement to include practice-based evidence alongside more traditional scientific evidence in the accumulation of knowledge about what works, when, and why?’ (Forss, Marra and Schwartz 2011: 5). The concept of practice-based evidence accepts that the world is a complicated, messy place that cannot be easily controlled. Those promoting its use suggest that it can provide additional insight about impact. Impact evaluation is an assessment of both the intended and unintended outcomes of a given intervention, where ‘the proper analysis of impact requires a counterfactual of what those outcomes would have been in the absence of the intervention’ (OECD 2001). This paper explores the challenge of using practice-based evidence gathered with civil society organisations – and agencies that support them – to learn more about the impact of policy-related work. Specifically, it uses the work undertaken in the Sexuality, Poverty and Law programme at the Institute of Development Studies, and focuses on one case study that looked at sex workers’ experiences of economic empowerment programmes in Ethiopia. The purpose is not to assess the case study or particular interventions, but to better understand what policy impact might look like.
They Chase Us Like Dogs": Exploring the Vulnerabilities of "Ladyboys" in the Cambodian Sex Trade
Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence
While the vulnerability of women and girls continues to be the subject of research and concern among social service providers, few attempts have been made to understand the vulnerabilities and lived experiences of transgender persons in the sex industry. Among the studies that have been done, most have focused on sexual health and their likelihood to contract or spread HIV/AIDS, often ignoring other potential vulnerabilities. This study aims to provide a broad baseline of data on the perspectives and experiences of transgendered persons in the sex trade in Phnom Penh, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of their needs, and vulnerabilities, including their trajectory into sex work and potential alternatives. In addition, this study aims to aid the development of programming and social services that meet their needs holistically, looking beyond gender expression and social identity to address often overlooked needs and vulnerabilities. This study notes the respondent's common personal feelings of self-blame, shame, and guilt, and discusses a perceived fatalism observed within the social identity of transgender persons in the Cambodian sex trade, and the impact this may have on their perception of alternative employment, future options, and vulnerability to violence. The majority of respondents, or 74%, indicate sexual harassment, and 40% cite physical assault within the past 12 months, as well as more than half of respondents (55%) who cite being forced to have sex against their wishes. In addition, respondents describe diverse and overlapping forms of stigma and discrimination including: loss of employment (39%) and loss or denial of housing (20%), denial of education (12%) and denial of basic health services (10%) as a result of being transgender. Over half of those citing stigma and discrimination and more than one-third of those citing physical assault, cite police as the perpetrators of the violence. This study notes the respondent's common personal feelings of self-blame, shame, and guilt, and discusses a perceived fatalism observed within the social identity of transgender persons in the Cambodian sex trade, and the impact this may have on their perception of alternative employment, future options, and vulnerability to violence.