The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? (original) (raw)
Cengtan and Fulin: The Saljuqs in Chinese Sources
Crossroads: Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World, 2017
This paper deals with Chinese records on the Saljuqs and interpretations of Chinese terms applied to the Saljuqs, particularly, the term Cengtan 層檀 which was used to the Saljuq Empire in Central Asia, Iran, and Transcaucasia and the term Fulin 拂菻 that was applied to the Saljuq Sultanate in Anatolia.
Ethnonyms along the Silk Road as Recorded in the Sino-Mongol Bilingual Sources
Ancient Texts and Languages of Ethnic Groups along the Silk Road, 2021
Full volume available at: https://www.univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-489-5/reckel\_seidenstrasse.pdf?sequence=1& Next to the ultimate source of the Secret History of the Mongols (SH) Sino-barbarian bilingual glossaries also constitute important sources for the history of Inner-Asian languages as well as for the Chinese language itself. Furthermore, they may deepen our overall knowledge about the history of the ethnic groups the language of which they refer to. An interesting layer of the lexicon recorded in such compilations is the vocabulary denoting ethnonyms. Belonging to a special division of the linguistic data these names give invaluable information on the history of the ever-changing political situation of the steppe area from the Yuan to the Qing era. Some ethnonyms seem to have evolved long before the emergence of a similarly named people known from historical records, some have survived long after the time when the underlying peoples had disappeared as political entities, yet other shifted from one ethnic group to another. In this paper, I attempt to give an overview on the ethnonyms appearing in the most important bilingual Sino-Mongol glossaries.
The Persian language in Yuan-dynasty China – a reappraisal.
East Asian History 39 (2014)
It has often been argued that the Persian language was a lingua franca, and even an official language, of the Yuan empire. A variety of evidence has been adduced for this, including supposed Persian influence on the terminology used by Marco Polo, the use of Persian in letters from Mongol Qa'ans to the Pope, Persian inscriptions on objects from China and Mongolia, and so on. All this evidence is examined, and it is concluded that most of it is illusory, or at least of dubious value. It is argued that Turkic was much more widely spoken and commonly used than Persian. In support of this, it is shown that Turks were probably the single largest group of Semu ren in the Yuan empire, and that many, if not most, of the Muslims in China during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were Turks.
"The Qai, the Khongai, and the Names of the Xiōngnú"
In this paper I discuss the attested names of the so-called "Xiōngnú" in the context of Inner Asian naming practices. I conclude that the term "Xiōngnú" is almost certainly not a pre-existing ethnic term (Inner Asian dynastonyms almost never are). Instead I argue that Qai (which is also the origin of Chinese Hú) is likely the ethnonym of the bulk of the Xiōngnú people, particularly those from Inner Mongolia. The term Xiōngnú, however, is likely a purely political term derived from the ancient form of the name of the Ongi River in Mongolia. Finally I argue that "People (or realm) that draws the bow” (yingongzhi min [or guo] 引弓之民 or 國) is a translation of the term that in Iranian became "Skythian," showing the linkage of the Xiōngnú to the Central Eurasian nomadic tradition.
-- šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ 'squirrel' rebus šrēṣṭhin 'vaišya, yuezhi'; Indus Script bronze lady dance-step, karana rebus 'scribe' khāra 'squirrel', rebus khār 'blacksmith This is an addendum to: Archaeological evidence that both Yuezhi and Meluhha artisans traded in gems and metals https://tinyurl.com/vn26evb Yuezhi is a term used by merchants of Gansu province, Tarim basin, China, to identify themselves. I suggest that this term is cognate with vaišya -- a Rgveda term. वैश्य m. (fr. 2. विश्) " a man who settles on the soil " , a peasant , or " working man " , agriculturist , man of the third class or caste (whose business was trade as well as agriculture) RV.; pl. N. of a people VarBr2S. Since this is a Rgveda term, the cognate yuezhi should be recognized as originally identified among Bharatam Janam (RV 3.53.12). Yuezhi were merchants who traded in jade, metals and horses. Indus Script Corpora is a catalogue of over 8000 inscriptions documenting metalwork, lapidary work trading in, documenting wealth created by production of gems and metals. I posit that Yuezhi were Meluhhan vaišya 'traders in gems and metals' who migrated to Gansu province. This migration may link with the migrations mentioned in Baudhāyana śrautasūtra 18.44 :397.9 sqq. which documents the most pregnant memory, perhaps, of an immigration of the Indo-Aryans into Northern India and of their split into two groups: pran Ayuh pravavraja. Tasyaite Kuru-Pancalah Kasi-Videha ity. Etad Ayavam pravrajam. Pratyan amavasus. Tasyaite Gandharvarayas Parsavo ‘ratta ity. Etad Amavasavam. “Ayu went eastwards. His (people) are the Kuru-Pancala and the Kasi Videha. This is the Ayava migration. (His other people) stayed at home in the West. His people are the Gandhari, Parsu and Aratta. This is the Amavasava (group)...the text makes a differentiation between the peoples of the Panjab and the territories West of it on one hand, and the “properly Vedic” tribes of Madhyadesa and the adjacent country East of it.” . Head-merchants: विश्--पति m. the chief of a settlement or tribe , lord of the house or of the people (also applied to अग्नि and इन्द्र ; du. " master and mistress of the house ") RV. AV. TS.; pl. " kings " or , " head-merchants " BhP. Sch. [cf. Zd. vis3-paiti ; Lith. ve14sz-patis.] vaíśya m. ʻ peasant as member of the third caste ʼ RV. adj. ʻ belonging to such ʼ MBh. (n. ʻ vassalage ʼ TS.). [vḗśa -- 1 or vēśyà -- ]Pa. vessa -- m., ˚sī -- , ˚sikā -- f. ʻ member of the third caste ʼ, Pk. vessa -- , vēsa -- m., vēsī -- f.; Si. vessā, st. ves<-> ʻ merchant ʼ; -- A. behā ʻ trade ʼ.v(CDIAL 12150) < विश्2 , a tribe , class , people (» मनुष्य-व्°) विश् a community , tribe , race (pl. also " subjects " , " people " , " troops ") RV. AV. VS. Br. MBh. BhP.; (sg. and pl.) the people (in the sense of those who settle on the soil ; sg. also " a man of the third caste " , a वैश्य ; विशाम् with पतिः or नाथः or ईश्वरः &c , " lord of the people " , a king , sovereign) S3Br. &c; (pl.) property , wealth BhP.; mf. a man in general , person (Monier-Williams) khāra, 'squirrel', Rebus: khār,'blacksmith' Rebus: khār खार्'blacksmith'. khāra -- basta f. ʻ blacksmith's skin bellows (Kashmiri) *śrēṣṭrī ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1] Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' 'squirrel' Rebus:śrēṣṭhin khār guild-master of blacksmith artisans and merchants. Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, ˚nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ]Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., ˚iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ, seṭhaṇ, ˚ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., ˚ṭhan f.; G. śeṭh, śeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh, ˚ṭhī, śeṭ, ˚ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭu, hi˚ ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?)(CDIAL 12726) சிரேட்டி cirēṭṭi , n. < šrēṣṭhin. Member of the Vaišya caste; வைசியன். (சூடா.) செட்டி¹ ceṭṭi , n. < Pkt. sēṭṭi < šrēṣṭhin. [M. ceṭṭi.] 1. Vaišya or mercantile caste; வைசியன். முட்டில் வாழ்க்கைச் செட்டியார் பெருமகன் (பெருங். இலாவாண. 20, 126). 2. Title of traders; வியாபாரிகளின் பட்டப்பெயர். 3. Skanda; முருகன். கடற்சூர் தடிந்திட்ட செட்டி (தேவா. 742, 10).செட்டியிறை ceṭṭi-y-iṟai , n. < id. +. An ancient tax on trade; வியாபாரிகட்கு விதிக்கப்பட்ட பழைய வரி. (Insc.) செட்டு ceṭṭu , n. < செட்டி¹ cf. šrēṣṭhi-tā. [M. ceṭṭu.] 1. Trade, traffic; வியாபாரம். (யாழ். அக.) 2. Economy, thrift; சிக்கனம். பலங்கொண்ட செட்டுமக்குப்பலித்தது (குமர. பிர. மதுரைக். 7). வசியர் vaciyar , n. < vaišya. Members of the Vaišya caste; வைசியர். அன்பார் வசியர்க்கே யாம் (சைவச. பொது. 95). (சூடா.) Palm-squirrel on Nindowari damb seal. Nindowari damb seal 1 Bronze statue of woman holding a lamp ?. Mohenjo-daroaṁsa m. ʻ shoulder, shoulder -- blade ʼ RV. Pa. Pk. aṁsa -- m. ʻ shoulder ʼ(CDIAL 6) అంసము amsamu. [Skt.] n. A shoulder, భుజశిరస్సు. అంసకూటము, a bull's hump. అంసపాదికట్టె a small forked prop which supports the woodwork on which a roof is laid. A small forked stake used at intervals to relieve the shoulders of those who bear a car, &c., in procession. అంసఫలకము, the upper part of the spine. Rebus: fibrous: అంశుకము amṣukamu. [Skt.] n. Cloth, a robe, వస్త్రము, పైటకొంగు. అంసగుడ్డ amsa-guḍḍa. [Tel.] n. Polishing cloth (used by carpenters.) కొయ్యకు మెరుగువచ్చేటట్టు తోమే గుడ్డ. 4 aṁśú m. ʻ filament esp. of soma -- plant ʼ RV., ʻ thread, minute particle, ray ʼ. Pa. aṁsu -- m. ʻ thread ʼ; Pk. aṁsu -- m. ʻ sunbeam ʼ; A. ã̄h ʻ fibre of a plant ʼ, OB. ã̄su; B. ã̄s ʻ fibre of tree or stringy fruit, nap of cloth ʼ; Or. ã̄su ʻ fibrous layer at root of coconut branches, edge or prickles of leaves ʼ, ã̄s f. ʻ fibre, pith ʼ; -- with -- i -- in place of -- u -- : B. ã̄iś ʻ fibre ʼ; M. ã̄sī˜ n. ʻ fine particles of flattened rice in winnowing fan ʼ; A. ãhiyā ʻ fibrous ʼ.aṁśuka ʻ *fibrous ʼ, n. ʻ cloth, garment ʼ lex. [aṁśú -- ] Pk. aṁsuya -- n. ʻ cloth ʼ; A. ã̄hu ʻ coloured thread ʼ; B. ã̄suyā ʻ fibrous, stringy ʼ, Or. ãsuā.(CDIAL 4,5) Tall, erect: *prāṁsara ʻ erect, straight ʼ. [Or *prāṁśura -- , ext. -- ra- of prāṁśu -- ʻ tall, high ʼ MBh., ʻ long, intense ʼ Kāv., ˚uka<-> ʻ large (of an animal) ʼ HYog. If of non -- Aryan origin (and not, with EWA ii 374, conn. aṁśú -- ), cf. prāñjala -- ʻ upright, straight, level ʼ ~ prājya -- ʻ much, large, long ʼ (J. C. W.)] G. pã̄srũ ʻ erect, straight, steady ʼ.(CDIAL 8913) Lady of Tarim Basin (Yuezhi?) Lohana women in western India (c. 1855–1862).
Purpose: The region of north-west China is a blank spot for Russian archaeologists. Materials for this part of the PRC have not been published in Russia till now. In this paper the author will try to discuss some aspects of ethnic identity of early nomads. We will see, that connection between archaeological cultures and ethnic names from ancient Chinese chronicles is very complicated. Results: The territory of Gansu and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region directly borders on Inner Mongolia and on Northern China, that is why it has been drawing the attention of Russian and foreign researchers for a long time. One considers Gansu and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region as a way of large migrations, other – as a place of mixture of various cultures of the West, the North and the East. During the large-scale archaeological researches which begun in the 80-ies of the last century the considerable material was obtained. Nevertheless, it is already possible to make some significant conclusions relying on this material, particularly to reconsider or add some occurring propositions in Chinese and Russian archaeological literature. In Russian archaeology an issue of comparing archaeological cultures and ethnic groups becomes more and more widely discussed. It is indicative that archaeological culture are based on archaeological sources, and ethnic groups – on written and epigraphic ones. The region of Southern Siberia in Early Iron Age was rather far from ancient civilizations, so connecting famous Pazyryk culture and the yuezhi people is of quite hypothetical character. The point of view, according to which Scythian Siberian world could be identified with di people seems also controvercial. Conclusion: The situation with early nomads who lived to the North of ancient Chinese Kingdoms of «Central plain» in the Spring and Autumn (722–481 B.C.) and Warring States (480–221 B.C.) periods is different. «Records of the Grand Historian» Sima Qian and other chronicle Chinese sources provide us with a number of various ethnonyms, names of tribal unions and proto-states. Those names appear to be random in character, besides reached us in Chinese pronunciation. In this case it would be more correct to speak of exo-ethnonyms. It should be noted that chroniclers’ interest was primarily political, not ethnographical. The whole peoples disappeared from chronicles not because they vanished but because in their recession (due to natural disasters, war conflicts) they did not concern the foreign policy of the Central plain states. For example, the number of reports about the Khitan changed according to their strengthening or weakening. When Hunnu grew weak, the number of reports about them decreased, but when they created their state Xia in the V-th century A. D. it was mentioned immediately as it was important for China. Conventional character of exo-ethnonyms used by chroniclers in the VI-th –II-nd centuries B. C. should be taken into consideration. So two common exo-ethnonyms – rong and di were used by Chinese historians since the Zhou period until at least the Sānguó period (III-d century A. D.).