Management of Prolonged Seizures and Status Epilepticus in Childhood: A Systematic Review (original) (raw)
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Management Approaches to Prolonged Seizures and Status Epilepticus
Epilepsia, 1999
Status epilepticus (SE) treatment should proceed on four fronts: termination of SE, prevention of recurrence, management of potential precipitating causes, and management of SE complications and underlying conditions. The intensity of the treatment should reflect the risk to the patient from SE, and drugs likely to depress respiration and blood pressure should initially be avoided. The Veterans Administration cooperative trial showed that when treating overt SE, first-line treatment success rates were: lorazepam 64.9%; phenobarbital 58.2%; diazepam/phenytoin 55.8%; and phenytoin alone 43.6%. The aggregate response rate to second-line agents for patients who did not respond to first-line agents was 7.0%, and it was 2.3% for third-line agents, raising the question of the efficacy of a second and third drug. The recommended treatment for generalized convulsive SE is to begin with lorazepam. As a second-line agent, phenytoin or fosphenytoin, is still recommended if SE control is not achieved within 5 to 7 min. Fosphenytoin achieves a free phenytoin level of about 2 μ/mL in 15 min, as opposed to 25 min with phenytoin itself. Moreover, fosphenytoin is safer and, despite higher cost, it may be cost-effective. High-dose barbiturates, high-dose benzodiaz-epines, and propofol are employed for major treatment for refractory SE. Patients at this stage should undergo continuous electroencephalogram monitoring. Once SE is controlled, prevention of seizure recurrence should be individualized to each patient. The major complications of generalized convulsive SE (GCSE), rhabdomyolysis and hyperthermia, should be watched for and treated.
Encyclopedia of Intensive Care Medicine, 2012
Status epilepticus is recognised as an acute emergency requiring urgent intervention. The optimal timing of such an intervention during a prolonged seizure, and the reasons for such, have provided much discussion. For operational purposes, a definition of a prolonged seizure of ≥5 minutes requiring intervention appears justified. However, a definition of status epilepticus of ≥30 minutes should stand, with the proportion of seizures proceeding to this clinical state remaining small. The reasons for this may be inherent to an individual, but an understanding of the mechanisms underlying the predisposition may lead to improved management pathways in the future.
EFNS guideline on the management of status epilepticus
2006
The objective of the current article was to review the literature and discuss the degree of evidence for various treatment strategies for status epilepticus (SE) in adults. We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE for relevant literature from (CENTRAL) was sought. Recommendations are based on this literature and on our judgement of the relevance of the references to the subject. Recommendations were reached by informative consensus approach. Where there was a lack of evidence but consensus was clear, we have stated our opinion as good practice points. The preferred treatment pathway for generalised convulsive status epilepticus (GCSE) is intravenous (i.v.) administration of 4-8 mg lorazepam or 10 mg diazepam directly followed by 18 mg/kg phenytoin. If seizures continue more than 10 min after first injection, another 4 mg lorazepam or 10 mg diazepam is recommended. Refractory GCSE is treated by anaesthetic doses of barbiturates, midazolam or propofol; the anaesthetics are titrated against an electroencephalogram burst suppression pattern for at least 24 h. The initial therapy of non-convulsive SE depends on type and cause. Complex partial SE is initially treated in the same manner as GCSE. However, if it turns out to be refractory, further non-anaesthetising i.v. substances such levetiracetam, phenobarbital or valproic acid should be given instead of anaesthetics. In subtle SE, in most patients, i.v. anaesthesia is required.
25 Years of Advances in the Definition, Classification and Treatment of Status Epilepticus
Seizure, 2017
Morbidity and mortality of SE correlate with duration of epileptic activity, the rapid identification of the cause of SE, age and comorbidity of the patients SE treatment should be started when epileptic seizure is abnormally prolonged (timepoint t1 in the new definition), which is at 5 minutes for generalized tonic clonic seizures, and at 10 minutes for focal seizures with or without impairment of consciousness.
CONTEXT: The optimal pharmacologic treatment for early convulsive status epilepticus is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To analyze efficacy , tolerability and safety data for anticonvulsant treatment of children and adults with convulsive status epilepticus and use this analysis to develop an evidence-based treatment algorithm. DATA SOURCES: Structured literature review using MEDLINE, Embase, Current Contents, and Cochrane library supplemented with article reference lists. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized controlled trials of anticonvulsant treatment for seizures lasting longer than 5 minutes. DATA EXTRACTION: Individual studies were rated using predefined criteria and these results were used to form recommendations, conclusions, and an evidence-based treatment algorithm. RESULTS: A total of 38 randomized controlled trials were identified, rated and contributed to the assessment. Only four trials were considered to have class I evidence of efficacy. Two studies were rated as class II and the remaining 32 were judged to have class III evidence. In adults with convulsive status epilepticus, intramuscular midazolam, intravenous lorazepam, intravenous diazepam and intravenous phenobarbital are established as efficacious as initial therapy (Level A). Intra-muscular midazolam has superior effectiveness compared to intravenous lorazepam in adults with convulsive status epilepticus without established intravenous access (Level A). In children, intravenous lorazepam and intravenous diazepam are established as efficacious at stopping seizures lasting at least 5 minutes (Level A) while rectal diazepam, intramuscular midazolam, intranasal midazolam, and buccal midazolam are probably effective (Level B). No significant difference in effectiveness has been demonstrated between intravenous lorazepam and intravenous diazepam in adults or children with convulsive status epilepticus (Level A). Respiratory and cardiac symptoms are the most commonly encountered treatment-emergent adverse events associated with intravenous anticonvulsant drug administration in adults with convulsive status epilepticus (Level A). The rate of respiratory depression in patients with convulsive status epilepticus treated with benzodiazepines is lower than in patients with convul
Practice Variations in the Management of Status Epilepticus
Neurocritical Care, 2012
Background Numerous anticonvulsant agents are now available for treating status epilepticus (SE). However, a paucity of data is available to guide clinicians in the initial treatment of seizures or SE. This study describes the current strategies being employed to treat SE in the USA. Methods Fifteen American academic medical centers completed a retrospective, multicenter, observational study by reviewing 10-20 of the most recent cases of SE at their institution prior to December 31, 2009. A multivariate analysis was performed to determine factors associated with cessation of seizures. Results A total of 150 patients were included. Most patients with SE had a seizure disorder (58 %). SE patients required a median of 3 AEDs for treatment. Three quarters of patients received a benzodiazepine as first-line therapy (74.7 %). Phenytoin (33.3 %) and levetiracetam (10 %) were commonly used as the second AED. Continuous infusions of propofol, barbiturate, or benzodiazepine were used in 36 % of patients. Median time to resolution of SE was 1 day and was positively associated with presence of a complex partial seizure, AED non-compliance prior to admission, and lorazepam plus another AED as initial therapy. Prolonged ICU length of stay and topiramate therapy prior to admission were negatively associated with SE resolution. Mortality was higher in patients without a history of seizure (22.2 vs 6.9 %, p = 0.006). The above listed authors are for the Neurocritical Care Pharmacy Study Group.