Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith (proof) (original) (raw)

A Companion to the Byzantine Culture of War, ca. 300-1204

A Companion to the Byzantine Culture of War, ca. 300-1204, 2018

The conversion of the emperor to Christianity required an elaboration of the imperial "Theology of Victory". With the god of the Christians recognized as the "greatest god", one could now expect further uniquely Christian signs foretelling victory, such as the appearance of a cross of light above Jerusalem on 7 May 351. This apparition has received but a fraction of the scholarly attention lavished on Constantine's vision, and all modern commentators appear content to regard it as a solar halo, despite its appearance in the morning. Cyril of Jerusalem, who had recently taken up his episcopate, witnessed the spectacle, and took the opportunity to write to Constantius. In his letter Cyril described the appearance "during the holy days of Pentecost, on the Nones of May, at around the third hour of the day [9am], of an immense cross formed from light, in the sky, which stretched above the holy Golgotha as far as the holy Mount of Olives". It was visible to all in the city for several hours, brighter than the sun, and hordes flocked into the churches, young and old, men and women, locals and foreigners, Christians and others, intoning "as if from one mouth the name of Jesus Christ, their Lord". Cyril offered the vision to Constantius as a greater gift than the earthly crowns with which others had honoured him, and as concrete proof of divine favour for his rule, so that he might confront his "enemies with greater courage". The cross was a "trophy of victory", specifically of Christ's victory over death, but also a sign that Constantius has God as his ally, and that he might "bear the trophy of the cross, the boast of boasts, carrying forward the sign shown to us in the skies, of which heaven has made an even greater boast by displaying its form to human beings". Constantius' rival was Magnentius, and by Constantius' victory at Mursa on 28 September 351 the truth of Cyril's claims were demonstrated. Given the similarity between the language he employed and that of Eusebius, writing a little over a decade earlier in the same part of the world, it is striking that Cyril did not compare the "immense cross formed from light" to that which Constantine and his troops were now believed to have witnessed four decades you do so unwittingly." See also Tertullian, Against Marcion, 4.20: "For with the last enemy death did He fight, and through the trophy of the cross He triumphed." 9 This passage is adapted from Stephenson, Constantine, pp. 74-5.

Eusebius on Constantine: Truth and Hagiography at the Milvian Bridge

2013

Few figures from the Late Antique period have received as much scholarly scrutiny as Constantine the Great. Who might rival him? In the field of early Christian studies, St. Augustine certainly has received ample treatment, and the bibliography on him is enormous. Yet those who study the bishop of Hippo do so primarily from one angle: the power of his ideas, whether philosophical or theological. To be sure, he is “set against his background,” yet it is not mainly Roman historians but patristic scholars who find Augustine interesting. Constantine, on the other hand, did not just live within history; he made it. More than any of the Church fathers (as influential as they often were), the “first Christian emperor” was in a position to change the course of human affairs. As such, he has been the object of intense scholarly investigation, not only by theologians, but also classicists, numismatists, and historians of antiquity, art, and warfare—people who usually care very little about th...

Roman Legionary AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great (proof)

Osprey Publishing, 2015

Diocletian and Constantine were the greatest of the later Roman emperors, and their era marks the climax of the traditional legionary system-Diocletian created more legions than any emperor since Augustus. Most frontier provinces were defended by a pair of legions, and field armies were composed of detachments drawn from those legions. Diocletian thus continued a centuries-old practice. However, he also began a process of dividing legions, including his new creations, into 'half-legions' and the detachments withdrawn for field army service, or garrison duties in foreign provinces, tended not to return to their parent formations. They became small, independent 'legions'. This ensured the permanent break-up of the classic Roman legion of ten cohorts, and those attached to the increasingly permanent imperial field armies achieved elite status and better terms of service, while the frontier legions were essentially downgraded. Constantine began the process of formalizing the division of the army into elite comitatenses (field army units) and ripenses or limitanei (river bank or frontier units) in ad 325. However, the fully developed Late Roman legion of the mid-and late 4th century ad lies beyond the scope of this book. The legionary forces of ad 284-337, organized in cohorts and centuries and led by prefects, praepositi and centurions, would have been recognizable to Roman generals of earlier eras, and legionaries continued to form the backbone of the army. cHRONOLOGY (All dates AD) 284 Assassination of Numerian; Diocles, commander of the protectores, is proclaimed emperor and takes the name Diocletian. 285 Carinus, brother and co-emperor of Numerian, defeats usurper Julianus at Verona but is in turn defeated by Diocletian at the Margus. Diocletian appoints Maximian Caesar (junior emperor); Maximian defeats the Bagaudae and repels German invasion of Gaul. Diocletian defeats the Sarmatians. 286 Maximian promoted to Augustus (senior emperor). Revolt of Carausius in Britain and northern Gaul. ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 284-337 Diocletian depicted in the typical fashion of a 'soldieremperor' of the late 3rd century ad, with radiate crown and a practical short, cropped hair. He is unshaven because he was continually on campaign or labouring on behalf of the Empire. The reverse celebrates 'the harmony of the army'. (© RHC Archive) 286-287 German raids across the Rhine into Roman territory. Maximian leads major punitive expedition into Germany. 288 Frankish king Gennoboudes submits to Maximian. 289 Diocletian campaigns against the Sarmatians. Failure of Maximian's naval operations against Carausius. 290 Diocletian's second campaign against the Saracens. 293 Diocletian establishes the Tetrarchy with Constantius and Galerius as Caesars. Constantius captures Boulogne and ejects Carausius' forces from Gaul; Carausius assassinated and replaced by Allectus in Britain. Constantius defeats German invasion of Batavia. Revolt in Upper Egypt. Maximian. His loyalty to Diocletian was unswerving, but he chafed in retirement and tried to usurp Maxentius and then Constantine, who forced him to commit suicide. (© G. Dall'Orto) 6 Galerius defeats Egyptian rebels. 295 Galerius campaigns against the Persians. 296 Constantius and praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus recapture Britain. Maximian holds Rhine frontier and then campaigns in Spain. Diocletian defeats the Quadi, campaigns against the Carpi, and then conducts operations against Persia. 297 Maximian campaigns against Quinquegentiani in Mauretania. Galerius defeated by Narses I of Persia near Carrhae. Domitianus and Achilles revolt in Egypt. 297-298 Diocletian besieges Alexandria and defeats Egyptian rebels. 298 Maximian campaigns in Tripolitania. Galerius defeats Narses in Armenia and captures Ctesiphon. 299/300 Purge of Christians from the Roman Army. Galerius campaigns against the Marcomanni. 300/1 Constantius defeats the Franks. 301 Galerius campaigns against the Carpi. 302 Galerius fights the Carpi and Sarmatians. 302 Constantius defeats the Alamanni at Lingones. 303 Galerius campaigns against the Carpi. Constantius is victorious over the Germans at Vindonissa. 304 Constantius repels German raiders. Diocletian defeats the Carpi. 305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian; Constantius and Galerius become senior emperors with Severus and Maximinus as their Caesars; Constantius defeats the Picts. 306 Death of Constantius at York; his eldest son Constantine is declared emperor by the army in Britain. Maxentius is elevated by the Praetorian Guard in Rome and calls his father, Maximian, out of retirement. 306/7 Galerius achieves victories over the Sarmatians. Constantine fights the Franks. 307 Severus, official senior emperor in the West, marches on Rome to eject Maxentius, but his army deserts to Maximian; Severus is imprisoned and later executed. Galerius invades Italy and approaches Rome, but is forced to withdraw when his soldiers start to desert to Maxentius and Maximian. 308 Constantine attacks the Bructeri and bridges the Rhine at Cologne. Domitius Alexander revolts against Maxentius in Africa. Conference of official emperors at Carnuntum: Maximian compelled to retire again; Licinius made Augustus and charged with defeating Maxentius. 308-309 Galerius fights the Carpi. Licinius campaigns against Maxentius' forces in Dalmatia and northeast Italy. 309 Domitius Alexander is defeated by Maxentius' praetorian prefect, Volusianus. 310 Constantine campaigns against the Franks. Maximian revolts against Constantine but is defeated at Marseille and commits suicide. Maximinus campaigns on the Constantine in ad 307/8. Charismatic and supremely ambitious, he fought three civil wars to bring the whole of the Roman Empire under his rule. (© RHC Archive) Persian frontier. Licinius defeats the Sarmatians. Death of Galerius. Maximinus attempts to seize Licinius' Asian provinces. Constantine invades Italy, captures Segusium, and defeats Maxentius' armies at Turin, Brixia and Verona; Constantine advances on Rome; defeat and death of Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. Maximinus campaigning in Armenia. Death of Diocletian. Maximinus invades Thrace but is defeated by Licinius at Campus Ergenus; Maximinus commits suicide; Licinius secures his position by ordering the executions of the families of Diocletian, Galerius and Maximinus. Constantine campaigns on the Lower Rhine. 313/4 Licinius campaigns on the Persian frontier. Constantine campaigning in Germany. 314/5 Licinius fights the Sarmatians. Constantine defeats Licinius at Cibalae. Licinius defeated at Adrianople but turns Constantine's position at Beroea and forces a negotiated settlement; he cedes his European territories, with the exception of the diocese of Thrace, to Constantine. Licinius campaigns against the Sarmatians. Crispus, son of Constantine, campaigns against the Franks. Constantine defeats Sarmatian invaders at Campona, Margus and Bononia and pursues them across the Danube. Crispus campaigns on the Rhine. Constantine defeats Gothic incursion. Licinius defeated at Adrianople and besieged in Byzantium by Constantine; Crispus defeats Licinius' fleet in the Hellespont; Constantine defeats Licinius and his Gothic allies at Chrysopolis; Licinius abdicates. Empire reunited under Constantine. Licinius is accused of plotting against Constantine and executed. Constantine executes Crispus (son by his first marriage) and Fausta (his second wife) following a mysterious scandal. Constantine bridges the Danube at Oescus and defeats the Goths; he proceeds to campaign on the Rhine. Constantinus, son of Constantine, campaigns against the Alamanni. Constantine wins major Gothic victory. Constantine campaigns against the Sarmatians. Constantine campaigns north of the Danube and takes the title Dacicus Maximus to celebrate the reconquest of former Roman territory. Constantine prepares for war with Persia but falls ill and dies at Nicomedia. Maxentius was overlooked in the succession of ad 305, but in 306 he was elevated by the Praetorian Guard. He was the last emperor to rule from Rome.

The Column of Constantine at Constantinople: A Cultural History (330-1453 C.E.)

2017

This thesis discusses the cultural history of the Column of Constantine at Constantinople, exploring its changing function and meaning from Late Antiquity to the end of the Byzantine era. Originally erected as a pagan triumphal column in celebration of Constantine's re-foundation of Byzantium as Constantinople in 330 C.E., this monument was soon reinterpreted within a Christian context and acquired its own relic tradition, most significantly relics from Christ's Passion. In addition, as the centuries passed, this relic tradition increased to include objects significant not only to Biblical history but also Constantinopolitan history. Because of this, in the middle Byzantine period, the column became a significant imperial and ecclesiastical station along the main street or Mese of Constantinople and was incorporated into the military triumphs of the period. Here, through close proximity with the column, the current emperor could link himself to Christ through Constantine the Great. Ultimately, at the conclusion of the Byzantine era, the column continued to retain significance as a monument of Byzantium's future and v revival. Therefore, with this in mind, we will study the Column of Constantine as a monument of layered meaning that sustained its significance in each Byzantine epoch as a microcosm of the history of Constantinople that was tied directly to its wellbeing by its citizens.

From Sinner to Saint? Seeking a Consistent Constantine

This article is part of a retrospective on Constantine on the 1700 anniversary of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. After reviewing recent Constantinian research it argues that the emperor can best be understood using the Augustinian/Lutheran paradigm of "simul iustus et peccator". The article appeared in "Rethinking Constantine: History, Theology, and Legacy," E. Smithers, ed., (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2014), pp. 5-25.