Catching Up with Wonderful Women (original) (raw)
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International journal of psychology : Journal international de psychologie, 2017
Inequalities between men and women are common and well-documented. Objective indexes show that men are better positioned than women in societal hierarchies-there is no single country in the world without a gender gap. In contrast, researchers have found that the women-are-wonderful effect-that women are evaluated more positively than men overall-is also common. Cross-cultural studies on gender equality reveal that the more gender egalitarian the society is, the less prevalent explicit gender stereotypes are. Yet, because self-reported gender stereotypes may differ from implicit attitudes towards each gender, we reanalysed data collected across 44 cultures, and (a) confirmed that societal gender egalitarianism reduces the women-are-wonderful effect when it is measured more implicitly (i.e. rating the personality of men and women presented in images) and (b) documented that the social perception of men benefits more from gender egalitarianism than that of women.
Stereotypes of Women and Men Across Gender Subgroups
Frontiers in Psychology, 2022
In this paper, we argue for the value of studying gender stereotypes at the subgroup level, combining insights from the stereotype content model, social role theory, and intersectional perspectives. Empirically, we investigate the stereotype content of gender subgroups in Norway, a cultural context for which a systematic description of stereotypes of gender subgroups is lacking. In a pilot study (n = 60), we established salient subgroups within the Norwegian context. Employing the stereotype content model, these groups were rated on warmth and competence in a main study (n = 191). Combining social role and intersectional perspectives, we compared stereotypes of women and men in the same social roles and social categories across subgroups. Comparisons between subgroups of women and men occupying the same social role indicated that at the subgroup level, women are often viewed as warmer than men, whereas the reverse appears to be a rare exception. Competence ratings, however, did not show this consistency. Our results at the subgroup level are consistent with research indicating that current gender stereotypes converge on constructs related to the competence dimension and remain divergent for constructs related to warmth.
American Psychologist
This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N ϭ 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men.
Internalized Gender Stereotypes Vary Across Socioeconomic Indicators
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2000
This series presents research findings based either directly on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) or using SOEP data as part of an internationally comparable data set (e.g. CNEF, ECHP, LIS, LWS, CHER/PACO). SOEP is a truly multidisciplinary household panel study covering a wide range of social and behavioral sciences: economics, sociology, psychology, survey methodology, econometrics and applied statistics, educational science, political science, public health, behavioral genetics, demography, geography, and sport science.
Annual Review of Psychology Gender Stereotypes
2019
There are many differences between men and women. To some extent, these are captured in the stereotypical images of these groups. Stereotypes about the way men and women think and behave are widely shared, suggesting a kernel of truth. However, stereotypical expectations not only reflect existing differences, but also impact the way men and women define themselves and are treated by others. This article reviews evidence on the nature and content of gender stereotypes and considers how these relate to gender differences in important life outcomes. Empirical studies show that gender stereotypes affect the way people attend to, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others. Considering the cognitive and motivational functions of gender stereotypes helps us understand their impact on implicit beliefs and communications about men and women. Knowledge of the literature on this subject can benefit the fair judgment of individuals in situations where gender stereotypes are...
Annual Review of Psychology
There are many differences between men and women. To some extent, these are captured in the stereotypical images of these groups. Stereotypes about the way men and women think and behave are widely shared, suggesting a kernel of truth. However, stereotypical expectations not only reflect existing differences, but also impact the way men and women define themselves and are treated by others. This article reviews evidence on the nature and content of gender stereotypes and considers how these relate to gender differences in important life outcomes. Empirical studies show that gender stereotypes affect the way people attend to, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others. Considering the cognitive and motivational functions of gender stereotypes helps us understand their impact on implicit beliefs and communications about men and women. Knowledge of the literature on this subject can benefit the fair judgment of individuals in situations where gender stereotypes are...
Bad but Bold: Ambivalent Attitudes Toward Men Predict Gender Inequality in 16 Nations
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2004
A 16-nation study involving 8,360 participants revealed that hostile and benevolent attitudes toward men, assessed by the Ambivalence Toward Men Inventory (P. Glick & S. T. Fiske, 1999), were (a) reliably measured across cultures, (b) positively correlated (for men and women, within samples and across nations) with each other and with hostile and benevolent sexism toward women (Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, P. Glick & S. T. Fiske, 1996), and (c) negatively correlated with gender equality in cross-national comparisons. Stereotype measures indicated that men were viewed as having less positively valenced but more powerful traits than women. The authors argue that hostile as well as benevolent attitudes toward men reflect and support gender inequality by characterizing men as being designed for dominance.
Sorting Out Sexism: Evaluating the Differing Content and Implications of Gender Stereotypes
2017
We examine, in three studies, the content and implications of sexist comments directed toward men and women. While past research has often overlooked sexism directed toward men because of its lower frequency and perceived consequences, due to the complementary nature of gender stereotypes it is important to examine sexism in all its guises. Our first two studies are descriptive, gathering comments from male and female participants about "what men/women are like" and their differing reactions to such comments. Study 1 found that comments about men fall into five distinct categories: sex-driven, childlike , "macho," morally flawed, and dehumanizing. Study 2 examines comments about men and women, and found that comments about men fell within the same five categories as Study 1 and that comments about women fall within five categories as well: emotional/illogical, controlling/demanding, feminine, "catty," and sexually promiscuous. The final study expands on these results, examining the extent to which men and women confront sexist comments directed toward men and women, and found that while men and women confront sexist comments about women equally, they differ in their response to sexist comments toward men. Overall, our results parallel previous findings suggesting women possess a stronger ingroup bias than men. This is displayed through their tendency to trivialize negative stereotypical comments about men as well as rate such comments as more accurate, while finding comments directed toward women significantly more disgusting and intimidating. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our research for men and women. SORTING OUT SEXISM Sorting Out Sexism: Evaluating the Differing Content and Implications of Gender Stereotypes When was the last time you heard someone make a comment such as "All men are dogs!" or "Why are women so emotional?" Gender stereotyping remains pervasive in social life (Haines, Deaux, & Lofaro, 2016), arguably influencing everything from daily interactions (e.g., Ridgeway & Correll, 2004) to the recent US presidential election (Glick, 2016). Because stereotypes are communicated through daily remarks, the current project focuses on sexist statements people hear in their social interactions. These remarks can reinforce gender stereotypes' perceived legitimacy by giving them social validation (Houten, 1979). Further, whereas past research on sexist remarks has focused on women as targets (Swim & Hyers, 1999; Eagly & Mladinic, 1994), we focus on sexist remarks about men, as well as women. We conducted two descriptive studies that focused on naturalistic sexist comments, one focusing on comments about men (Study 1) and another focusing on comments about both men and women (Study 2), assessing participants' reactions. Study 3 was experimental and examined the degree to which men and women confront sexist comments depending on whether the comment targeted a man or a woman. For the purposes of our research, we focused only on traditional stereotypes and sexism about men and women and thus our results are less applicable for those who identify outside of the gender binary. Understanding Stereotypes Originally defined as simple, erroneous, secondhand attributions about groups that resist change (Lippmann, 1922), how stereotypes are defined has evolved in the past ninety years to account for the complexities revealed through subsequent research. Currently, a commonly accepted definition states that stereotypes are socially shared beliefs that attribute specific
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2005
Many have suggested that complementary gender stereotypes of men as agentic (but not communal) and women as communal (but not agentic) serve to increase system justification, but direct experimental support has been lacking. The authors exposed people to specific types of gender-related beliefs and subsequently asked them to complete measures of gender-specific or diffuse system justification. In Studies 1 and 2, activating (a) communal or complementary (communal ϩ agentic) gender stereotypes or (b) benevolent or complementary (benevolent ϩ hostile) sexist items increased support for the status quo among women. In Study 3, activating stereotypes of men as agentic also increased system justification among men and women, but only when women's characteristics were associated with higher status. Results suggest that complementary stereotypes psychologically offset the one-sided advantage of any single group and contribute to an image of society in which everyone benefits through a balanced dispersion of benefits.
Sex Roles, 2009
The effects of perceived normative (societal) levels of benevolent (BS) and hostile sexism (HS) on one's own sexist attitudes were examined over a four-month period in an undergraduate New Zealand sample (76 women, 26 men). Perceptions of normative levels of men's BS produced longitudinal change in one's own BS, and this effect was invariant across gender. However, contrary to previous research suggesting that women endorse BS when men are high in HS for its protective benefits, women instead expressed subjectively positive paternalistic attitudes toward their gender to the extent that they perceived BS as normative in men. The transmission of patriarchical-defined ideologies is tempered by the degree to which such ideologies espouse benevolent versus more overtly hostile attitudes toward women.