Sustainable energy options and implications for land use (original) (raw)

Abstract

This Global Land Outlook working paper is one of a series that aims to synthesize and compile know¬ledge, focus on the land-energy nexus (i.e., taking into account food and water) and provi¬de data, contexts, and recom¬men¬da¬tions on the interaction between energy and land. The normative framework for analysis will be the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Since the mandate of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is to combat global desertification and land degradation, the land "footprint" of energy supply and use, referred to in SDG 15, is of particular inte¬rest. Currently, approximately 90 percent of global energy demand is met from non-renewable energy (mainly fossil), which leaves its footprint on land through resource extraction (e.g., coal mi¬ning), conversion (e.g., refineries, power plants) and their respective infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, fuel storage, transmission lines). Similarly, the development of renewable energies, such ...

Figures (14)

Source: Based on United Nations SDG web page at www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/news/communicatio! material/ Notes: Bold text = SDG directly related to energy, high land relevance; (“) = partially relevant.

Source: Based on United Nations SDG web page at www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/news/communicatio! material/ Notes: Bold text = SDG directly related to energy, high land relevance; (“) = partially relevant.

Source: Fernandez et al. (2016). Note that GHG emissions of biomass do not include possible indirect land use change effects (Box 1).

Source: Fernandez et al. (2016). Note that GHG emissions of biomass do not include possible indirect land use change effects (Box 1).

Source: based on Scherer and Pfister (2016). TWh, = Terawatt-hour electricity; km? = square kilometre; m? = square meter; MWh, = Megawatt-hour electricity. Table 3: Overview of area of land flooded after dam construction and land use intensities for examples of individual hydroelectric systems in selected countries

Source: based on Scherer and Pfister (2016). TWh, = Terawatt-hour electricity; km? = square kilometre; m? = square meter; MWh, = Megawatt-hour electricity. Table 3: Overview of area of land flooded after dam construction and land use intensities for examples of individual hydroelectric systems in selected countries

Table 4: Land footprints of oil and gas extraction in various countries Source: lIINAS (2017). m2 = square meter; MWh = Megawatt-hour; LNG = liquefied natural gas, LPG = liquefied petroleum gas. On-shore and offshore gas and oil extraction, including fracking, have smaller direct land use footprints per unit of energy supply than coal-based systems. They also have smaller footprints than many RE systems (excluding biomass residues and waste) and rooftop or building- integrated PV (Tables 2 and 4).

Table 4: Land footprints of oil and gas extraction in various countries Source: lIINAS (2017). m2 = square meter; MWh = Megawatt-hour; LNG = liquefied natural gas, LPG = liquefied petroleum gas. On-shore and offshore gas and oil extraction, including fracking, have smaller direct land use footprints per unit of energy supply than coal-based systems. They also have smaller footprints than many RE systems (excluding biomass residues and waste) and rooftop or building- integrated PV (Tables 2 and 4).

Source: Adjusted from Miller (2010). m? = square meter; GJ = Gigajoule; g = gram; N = nitrogen.

Source: Adjusted from Miller (2010). m? = square meter; GJ = Gigajoule; g = gram; N = nitrogen.

Figure 2: Opportunities for water-bioenergy synergies Bioenergy systems can provide opportunities to mitigate water pollution impacts, improve water productivity and increase access to water by providing water treatment solutions that simultaneously produce bioenergy and by supplying a wider range of land-use options to optimize the use of land and water (IRENA, 2015b); JRC, 2013; UNEP, 2014). For example, plants, such as willow or giant reed, can be cultivated as vegetation filters, capturing nutrients in runoff from farmlands (Ferrarini et al., 2017; Fortier et al., 2016; Golkowska et al., 2016) and pretreated wastewater from households. Soil-covering plants and vegetation strips can also be located to limit water and wind-driven soil erosion, reduce evaporating surface runoff, trap sediment, enhance infiltration and reduce the risk of soil erosion (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Opportunities for water-bioenergy synergies Bioenergy systems can provide opportunities to mitigate water pollution impacts, improve water productivity and increase access to water by providing water treatment solutions that simultaneously produce bioenergy and by supplying a wider range of land-use options to optimize the use of land and water (IRENA, 2015b); JRC, 2013; UNEP, 2014). For example, plants, such as willow or giant reed, can be cultivated as vegetation filters, capturing nutrients in runoff from farmlands (Ferrarini et al., 2017; Fortier et al., 2016; Golkowska et al., 2016) and pretreated wastewater from households. Soil-covering plants and vegetation strips can also be located to limit water and wind-driven soil erosion, reduce evaporating surface runoff, trap sediment, enhance infiltration and reduce the risk of soil erosion (Figure 2).

Source: Berndes (2015). Solid bars indicate a range of values in the literature, while boxes represent the difference in median and mean values. Lignocellulosic ethanol includes thermochemical and biological pathways. Figure 3: Range of water footprints of selected biofuel pathways

Source: Berndes (2015). Solid bars indicate a range of values in the literature, while boxes represent the difference in median and mean values. Lignocellulosic ethanol includes thermochemical and biological pathways. Figure 3: Range of water footprints of selected biofuel pathways

Figure 4: Agro-ecological zoning: designation of land suitable for sugarcane production in Brazil FAO has produced and refined guidelines and tools to assess the local, regional and national impact of bioenergy feedstock production projects, to be used before and after project implementation.°? Another key tool to ensure that and rights are respected and enforced is the Vo/untary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security CFS, 2012), which encourage the periodic review of agreements, ensuring that they are properly understood and that indigenous people and other vulnerable groups are provided with information and support so they can participate effectively. Certification schemes (Section 6.2) often refer to best practices in management. Such best management practices assist farmers to achieve higher yields as well as higher incomes, both of which contribute to an improved food security status.

Figure 4: Agro-ecological zoning: designation of land suitable for sugarcane production in Brazil FAO has produced and refined guidelines and tools to assess the local, regional and national impact of bioenergy feedstock production projects, to be used before and after project implementation.°? Another key tool to ensure that and rights are respected and enforced is the Vo/untary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security CFS, 2012), which encourage the periodic review of agreements, ensuring that they are properly understood and that indigenous people and other vulnerable groups are provided with information and support so they can participate effectively. Certification schemes (Section 6.2) often refer to best practices in management. Such best management practices assist farmers to achieve higher yields as well as higher incomes, both of which contribute to an improved food security status.

Source: World Bank (2017). Figure 5: Land use planning mandates in different world regions In India, where land use planning is regulated by state-level governments, two states (i.e., Odisha and Maharashtra) mandate developing land use plans. India is also implementing a national soil monitoring program that aims to provide farmers with relevant data (World Bank, 2017). With regard to energy and land use, it is important to differentiate between the centralized (non-renewable) technologies that require fuel and other resources to be delivered to the production facility and distributed RE technologies that rely on either on-site fuel and/or use the energy locally, significantly reducing the need for transportation and transmission infrastructure. Land use planning should consider the implications of the entire life cycle of different technologies and fuels (Kaza and Curtis, 2014). An important example combining land use planning with bottom-up activities to rehabilitate degraded land and to provide more ecosystem services is the Great Green Wall in Northern Africa (Box 10). Land use planning encourages the assessment of current and potential land uses in a territory and the adoption of those that best meet people's needs, while safeguarding valuable resources for future generations. Soil quality data provide useful information for governments, farmers and other stakeholders to monitor the impact of agricultural activities and inform land management decision-making and farming practices. While land use planning is mandated in all high-income member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, as well as in East Asian and Pacific countries, it is less common in other regions such as Africa and South Asia, except Nepal and India (World Bank, 2017).

Source: World Bank (2017). Figure 5: Land use planning mandates in different world regions In India, where land use planning is regulated by state-level governments, two states (i.e., Odisha and Maharashtra) mandate developing land use plans. India is also implementing a national soil monitoring program that aims to provide farmers with relevant data (World Bank, 2017). With regard to energy and land use, it is important to differentiate between the centralized (non-renewable) technologies that require fuel and other resources to be delivered to the production facility and distributed RE technologies that rely on either on-site fuel and/or use the energy locally, significantly reducing the need for transportation and transmission infrastructure. Land use planning should consider the implications of the entire life cycle of different technologies and fuels (Kaza and Curtis, 2014). An important example combining land use planning with bottom-up activities to rehabilitate degraded land and to provide more ecosystem services is the Great Green Wall in Northern Africa (Box 10). Land use planning encourages the assessment of current and potential land uses in a territory and the adoption of those that best meet people's needs, while safeguarding valuable resources for future generations. Soil quality data provide useful information for governments, farmers and other stakeholders to monitor the impact of agricultural activities and inform land management decision-making and farming practices. While land use planning is mandated in all high-income member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, as well as in East Asian and Pacific countries, it is less common in other regions such as Africa and South Asia, except Nepal and India (World Bank, 2017).

Figure 6: Participating countries and focus areas of the Great Green Wall

Figure 6: Participating countries and focus areas of the Great Green Wall

The previous sections indicate that the linkages between RE development and land use are substantial, and that activities such as agroforestry, phytoremediation and use of degraded land for bioenergy are instrumental to improve land use in the future. These activities appear as potential contributions to achieve land degradation neutrality (LDN), reflecting SDG target 15.3 and contributing to SDG 7 and the United Nation's goal of Sustainable Energy for All. Producing sustainable bioenergy while restoring degraded land offers significant potential (Section 3.2), although it may face economic challenges due to high investments for preparing initial cultivation and developing infrastructure. 55 See also http:/clubofmozambique.com/news/southern-africa- join-great-green-wall-august-30-2016/ The GGWSSI also has raised interest in Southern Africa for a Great Green Wall for Southern Africa (World Bank, 2016).°° Earlier activities on a Great Green Wall for China (Bellefontaine e al., 2011) indicate that the concept is not only an African one, and that much learning on appropriate and sustainable implementation which, like Africa, will be required in China (Jian, 2016). 5. LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FOR ALL

The previous sections indicate that the linkages between RE development and land use are substantial, and that activities such as agroforestry, phytoremediation and use of degraded land for bioenergy are instrumental to improve land use in the future. These activities appear as potential contributions to achieve land degradation neutrality (LDN), reflecting SDG target 15.3 and contributing to SDG 7 and the United Nation's goal of Sustainable Energy for All. Producing sustainable bioenergy while restoring degraded land offers significant potential (Section 3.2), although it may face economic challenges due to high investments for preparing initial cultivation and developing infrastructure. 55 See also http:/clubofmozambique.com/news/southern-africa- join-great-green-wall-august-30-2016/ The GGWSSI also has raised interest in Southern Africa for a Great Green Wall for Southern Africa (World Bank, 2016).°° Earlier activities on a Great Green Wall for China (Bellefontaine e al., 2011) indicate that the concept is not only an African one, and that much learning on appropriate and sustainable implementation which, like Africa, will be required in China (Jian, 2016). 5. LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FOR ALL

Figure 9: Sustainability schemes relating to biomass and land Source: Iriarte et al. (2015).

Figure 9: Sustainability schemes relating to biomass and land Source: Iriarte et al. (2015).

Notes: SDG = Sustainable Development Goals; UNCCD = United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification; RAI = Responsible Agricultural Investments; WB = World Bank; VGGT = Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance o Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests; UNFCCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Notes: SDG = Sustainable Development Goals; UNCCD = United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification; RAI = Responsible Agricultural Investments; WB = World Bank; VGGT = Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance o Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests; UNFCCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

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