"Glimpses of the 'Feminine' in Indian Religion and Society: A Christian Perspective" by Johnson Thomaskutty (original) (raw)
Femininity: A Sociological Nightmare
Abstract: The history of rise and fall of human civilization assures us that masculinity is the summumbonum of the modern culture. The secular and scriptural literature never discriminate femininity against masculinity yet the history reveals that in the beginning of social evolution the basis of marriage was romantic sexual attraction, harmony of tastes and interests. The consent was a closed phenomenon like being vested in female but scarcely to be used by her. This was the cause of subservience and subjugation of women to man. No sooner the free choice of man and woman in marriage was recognized and gained momentum the masculine grip began to loosen but this time with a difference.
The South Asian sub-continent, even when restricted to those areas that are predominantly Hindu, is a vast and variegated region subject to immense geographic, historic, economic, sectarian, caste and other differences-all of which are reflected in the diversity of women, their lifestyles and their positions visa -vis men. 1 Yet, despite this great diversity, there is a continuous though developing theme of cultural uniformity-in part derived from the classical Hindu traditions, in part from the interaction between the bearers of such traditions and a variety of tribal and indigenous peoples, and in part from unorthodox developments within Hinduism itself. In this introductory chapter I examine those aspects of Hindu ideology that directly impinge on the formation of significant views of Hindu women. I first examine the fourfold structure of goals (moksa, dharma, artha and, kama) and their associated ideological emphases on renunciation, purity, worldly success and sensuous gratification, These fixed structural categories give rise to a large number of well-known Hindu female stereotypes-such as pure virgin, voluptuous temptress, obedient wife, honoured mother, dread widow, impure menstruating woman, powerful sexual partner etc, I then examine the same ideological components in the context of social process, and here the most relevant schema is that of the triguna with its dynamic representation of woman as consisting of three interrelated forces-those of creation, maintenance and destruction-with the best known stereotypes consisting of fertile maiden, nurturant mother and destructive widow. This triple format is, as Kondos has demonstrated for the Parbatya of Kathmandu, relevant not only at the metaphysical, but also at the ritual and social levels. I should also point out that each of the fourfold structures has its triadic processual form when restricted to the this-worldly context of phenomenal existence. In the final section I briefly indicate that each of the principal stereotypes can, in their positive and negative forms, be so represented as to constitute extreme positions on a hierarchical continuum. Just as the fourfold structure of goals can be reduced to a dialogue between moksa and, dharma, between the renouncer and the man-in-the-world, so too can the Hindu woman be alternately viewed as pure/impure, sinister/benign, creative/destructive, ally/opponent, goddess/witch. I should stress that my aim in this paper is to focus attention on the more purely ideological components of Hindu thinking about women. I make no attempt to consider the relationship between ideology and behaviour, a task that is left to the succeeding essays.
Cultural and Ideological Influences on the Role of Women
Priscilla Papers, 1998
Author: Frances Hiebert Publisher: CBE International From ancient times and in almost every culture the role of women has been questioned, debated, and regulated. At present in the evangelical Christian church, much of the debate centers on theology as it defines the role of women in ministry. Actually, different biblical passages and different interpretations of the same passages give rise to quite different theologies. On the one hand, when the focus is on a few selected verses in the Bible that seem to restrict the ministry of women, a restrictive theology of ministry is the result. On the other hand, when the seemingly restrictive verses are put in their cultural and historical context and when the whole of Scripture is taken into account, a theology is revealed that supports women’s mutuality with men in all forms of Christian ministry according to the gifts of the Spirit.