On the Metal-Leaf Decorations of Post-Byzantine Greek Icons (original) (raw)
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Material Aspects of Icons. A Review on Physicochemical Studies of Greek Icons
Accounts of Chemical Research, 2010
H oly icons created in the Byzantine era are a vital entity in Orthodox Christianity, a living tradition unbroken over more than 1500 years. The importance of these symbolic representations has inspired interdisciplinary studies to better understand the materials and process of their construction. Researchers from a variety of fields are working together to place icons in their proper historical and cultural framework, as well as to develop long-term conservation strategies. In this Account, we review very recent analytical results of the materials and painting methods used in the production of Byzantine iconography. The care of icons requires particular attention because of their function; icons are objects of veneration and, for the most part, still stand in today's churches to serve ritual practices. Accordingly, they are affected by random, fluctuating environmental conditions aggravated by public access. Because of the holiness of the icons, the typical tradition of the church is to periodically restore the depicted scenes, either by retouching any defects or by partial or complete overpainting. These interventions greatly increase the complexity of the paint stratigraphy. To reveal the extent and quality of the original painting under several historical overpaintings or dirt overlays on the icon, researchers usually pursue a manifold approach, combining complementary multispectral imaging and spectroscopic techniques nondestructively. Unfortunately, a visual and exhaustive spectroscopic examination of a minimum number of cross-sectional microsamples is almost always necessary to clarify the structure of the paint layers and map the constituent materials identified therein. A full understanding of these details is critical for assessing the painting methods, stylistic conventions, and compositional concepts that render the different iconographic details. Cross-sectional micro-Raman spectroscopy, although timeconsuming, now affords the direct identification of the distinct grains of almost all of the inorganic pigments and inert components included in the paint layers. Micro-Raman studies are complemented and cross-checked by micro-FTIR and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) studies. This approach is essential in documenting the evolution of the materials and techniques used in creating icons over the centuries. Analytical data on Greek icons are now available for comparison with similar results from other important schools of iconography, such as in the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, or Russia, or, further, with Western schools of painting. The research constitutes a reference base for identifying and solving analytical problems, such as those related to the organic materials found in icons that have not yet been systematically studied. Moreover, the results on icons are also generally applicable to important analytical issues encountered in studying any multilayered paint stratigraphies.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 2007
A multi-method approach has been developed for the characterisation of the proteinaceous binding media, drying oils and pigments present in samples from the panel paintings of the Church of the Assumption in Cephalonia (Ionian Islands, Greece). The analytical protocol involved the use of scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDX), Raman spectroscopy and gas chromatography. The identification of the pigments was achieved by SEM/EDX and Raman spectroscopy. The latter technique was also used for the detection of the binding media, while their characterisation was achieved by gas chromatographic analysis of ethyl chloroformate derivatives. The aim of this multi-method protocol was to obtain as much information as possible from the panel paintings of the Church of the Assumption, through non-destructive methods, before proceeding to gas chromatography. Little scientific information is available for the understanding of the construction technique and the materials used by the post-Byzantine artists and whatever is available comes mainly from artists' manuals. One of the aims of this paper is to provide a scientific background to the technology of the Ionian post-Byzantine icons.
Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, 2004
The main churches of two important monasteries in Thessalia, Central Greece, are decorated with wall paintings that hail from the post-Byzantine period. The mural decoration of the main church of the St. Byssarionas Monastery at Doussiko has been attributed to the iconographer Tzortzis. The same painter is believed to have also operated in the main church of the Transfiguration Monastery at the monastic community of Meteora. The light microscopic (LM) examination of the cross-sections of samples taken from the gilded areas of the wall paintings, together with the direct temperature resolved mass spectrometric (DTMS) and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic (SEM-EDX) analysis, revealed a further resemblance of the materials and the methodology employed. The gold leaf was applied to the paintings by means of a mordant, which contains linseed oil mixed with a lead-containing dryer and an earth pigment or clay. The present study can constitute additional evidence to reinforce the idea that the two churches may have been painted by the same painter or workshop. D
Journal of Raman Spectroscopy
This work is an extensive study of two post-Byzantine icons, ‘Our Lady, the Life-giving Spring’ and ‘Saint Athanasios the Athonite,’ both painted during the 16th century and now kept at Saint Modestos's Church in Kalamitsi, Chalkidiki, Greece. The icons were examined using non-destructive and microanalytical techniques, namely fluorescence photography under UV light, x-radiography and optical microscopy, in addition to micro-Raman and micro-Fourier transform IR spectroscopy. This study allowed the assessment of the current state of preservation of these icons, revealed prior damage and identified in detail the pigments and materials used in the original paintings and overpaintings. Moreover, it confirmed the usefulness of this approach to the detailed evaluation of icons in general and provided significant structural data on representative portable icons of Cretan-style religious painting. The palette for the original paintings of the two icons consists of the natural pigments c...
Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2004
The pigments, organic materials and techniques used on a post-Byzantine icon of St Nicholas were determined by means of several micro-analytical techniques. The icon painter covered the leather support with silver leaf about 3 µm thick to create a smooth working surface. Animal glue was used to secure the leaf to the leather, and FTIR spectroscopy has identified another layer, 30-60 µm thick, of the same material applied as a primer above the silver. Above that, a layer of lead white covering the entire surface creates a white substratum serving the same purpose as the gesso on a wood panel. The colour palette, determined by means of scanning electron microscopy and FTIR spectroscopy, is very simple. Only seven colours were identified: lead white, caput mortuum, red and yellow ochre, cinnabar, carbon black and smalt. As far as we know, this is the first time that smalt has been found on a Byzantine icon. Since smalt was chemically synthesised only after 1500 AD, it may be concluded that this icon was painted after the end of the 15th century. Beeswax was used as a protective varnish.
On the blue and green pigments of post‐Byzantine Greek icons
Archaeometry, 2020
In the framework of a large-scale investigation of post-1453 AD icons, the blue and green pigments on more than 50 works were investigated. Studied works date from mid-15 th to mid-19 th centuries and originate from various modern-day Greece regions. Results indicate the use of both natural and artificial pigments; among the latter the very poorly documented in Greek icons artificial copperbased blue is included. Shift as regards the use of specific pigments are reported and local trends are compared to the contemporary western European ones. Relevant terms found in the renowned "Hermeneia" craftsman's handbook are also discussed in an attempt to restore pertinent misconceptions.
Laskaris N., Varalis.I, Tsodoulos C. and Dolmas C., 2020
Silver and gold alloys have been widely applied in the making of precious objects during the byzantine and post byzantine eras. A major category is the "ecclesiastical silver", which was used in the celebration of the liturgy (chalices, disks, asterisks, blessing and benediction crosses, processional crosses, liturgical fans, wedding crowns etc.). This study focuses on post-byzantine ecclesiastical silver chalices, kept in parish churches and monasteries of Eastern Thessaly. They have been studied with non-destructive analysis technique (XRF) for the clarification of the role of gold (Au) in the Silver-Copper-Gold alloy. The main question answered in this work is whether gold (Au) was part of the compositional alloy or decorative and moreover if it was applied with amalgamation procedure (Au-Hg alloy). By using X-Ray fluorescence spectroscopy, mathematic procedures for data processing it is proved that in all cases gold was decorative and applied with fire gilding amalgamation process. Thus, in this work, it is proved that "fire mercury process" was the primary procedure for gilding ecclesiastical silver in Eastern Thessaly in the post-byzantine period.