Methods And Compositions Of Protein Antigens For The Diagnosis And Treatment Of Toxoplasma Gondii Infections And Toxoplasmosis (original) (raw)

Leptospirosis: an emerging global public health problem

Journal of biosciences, 2008

Leptospirosis has been recognized as an emerging global public health problem because of its increasing incidence in both developing and developed countries. A number of leptospirosis outbreaks have occurred in the past few years in various places such as Nicaragua, Brazil and India. Some of these resulted due to natural calamities such as cyclone and fl oods. It is a direct zoonotic disease caused by spirochetes belonging to different pathogenic species of the genus Leptospira. Large number of animals acts as carriers or vectors. Human infection results from accidental contact with carrier animals or environment contaminated with leptospires. The primary source of leptospires is the excretor animal, from whose renal tubules leptospires are excreted into the environment with the animal urine. Majority of leptospiral infections are either sub clinical or result in very mild illness and recover without any complications. However, a small proportion develops various complications due to involvement of multiple organ systems. In such patients, the clinical presentation depends upon the predominant organs involved and the case fatality ratio could be about 40% or more. Febrile illness with icterus, splenomegaly and nephritis (known as Weil's disease), acute febrile illness with severe muscle pain, febrile illness with pulmonary haemorrhages in the form of haemoptysis, jaundice with pulmonary haemorrhages, jaundice with heamaturea, meningitis with haemorrhages including sub conjunctival haemorrhage or febrile illness with cardiac arrhythmias with or without haemorrhages are some of the syndromes. Because of the protean manifestations of leptospirosis it is often misdiagnosed and under-reported. Although the basic principles of prevention such as source reduction, environmental sanitation, more hygienic work-related and personal practices etc., are same everywhere, there is no universal control method applicable to all epidemiological settings. Comprehensive understanding of the eco-epidemiological and cultural characteristics of a community that faces the problem of leptospirosis is an essential prerequisite for evolving an effective and acceptable control measure.

Global Epidemiological Overview of Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by leptospira species, which has over 20 serogroups and more than 250 serovars and distributed worldwide. wild mammals particularly, rodents are the primary reservoir of the infection where as domestic animals such as cattle, dogs and pigs may act as carriers for several months (temporary carrier) while rodents usually remain carrier throughout their life (permanent carrier). Rodents are therefore considered as the major reservoir of infection. Leptospirae are excreted in the urine of the animals and they affect man when he comes into contact with urine of infected animals, directly or indirectly, when he is exposed to an environment contaminated by the urine of the infected animals such as soil and surface water. It has a considerable public health and economic impact. Primarily, leptospirosis is an occupational disease affecting many labourers (like: Veterinarians, rice field workers, farmers, sugarcane cutters, fishermen, meat-and sewer workers) in their productive age. Apart from the costs of treatment, this generates economic losses by a decreased income both at the personal and national level. There is an enormous economic impact on the international trade of animals and semen. Economic losses are also caused by cost for treatment and control and by reduced milk yields and reproductive failures. The diagnosis of this disease in man and animals is investigated by direct and indirect laboratory methods. Direct methods includes immunofluorescence staining, immunoperoxidase staining, silver staining and various methods of Polymerase Chain Reaction; while the indirect methods includes various types of ELISA tests, the spot agglutination test or methods reliably identifying the infecting serovars, such as the microscopic agglutination test. Human leptospirosis can be controlled by reducing its prevalence in wild and domestic animals. Leptospirosis in domestic animals can be controlled through vaccination with inactivated whole cells. Sanitation and control of rodents are also important for prevention and control. The reported prevalence values of animal infection across the world are between 2 and 46% depending on the animal species.

LEPTOSPIROSIS, A CLINICAL UPDATE REGARDING A NEGLECTED INFECTIOUS DISEASE

Leptospirosis is one of the neglected infectious diseases locally widespread and extremely significant in tropical areas due to its great epidemic potential. It is a worldwide public health problem in view of the emergence and reemergence of the disease due to lack of sanitation and negligence, among other factors. In fact, leptospirosis infects more than 1 million people per year, resulting in almost 60,000 deaths. Human infection generally takes place after skin exposure to soil and/or water contaminated with urine of chronically infected mammals. The clinical presentations of the disease vary from a slight fever, goosebumps and flu-like symptoms to the acute forms of the disease. Understanding the main aspects of the disease is paramount due to the many unspecific signs and symptoms as well as frequently mistaken diagnosis. In this article, we discuss the epidemiological, immunopathogenic, clinical and prophylactic aspects of this condition with the purpose of clarifying an up to date panorama of the subject.

REVIEW LEPTOSPIROSIS, A CLINICAL UPDATE REGARDING A NEGLECTED INFECTIOUS DISEASE

2021

Leptospirosis: A Neglected Zoonosis of Public Health Concern

Leptospirosis is an important emerging and re-emerging zoonotic disease that is spread worldwide by pathogenic species of the bacterium genus Leptospira. The disease is commonly reported especially in tropical and subtropical areas. Leptospirosis is a neglected tropical zoonotic disease that is rapidly becoming a major public health issue around the world. Leptospirosis has emerged as a prominent cause of acute febrile disease in many developing nations due to neglect, rapid, unplanned urbanization, and poor sanitation. Although it has been stated that leptospirosis is the most frequent zoonotic illness, it is thought to be underreported due to the non-specificity of clinical symptoms and the lack of laboratory confirmation in endemic areas. A wide range of clinical manifestations, ranging from asymptomatic infection to fulminant, deadly disease, is characteristic of the disease. Laboratory help is needed to confirm an unequivocal diagnosis of leptospirosis. Antibacterial antibiotics are used to treat the acute illness in the patient. This mini review includes all current information on leptospirosis, including its etiology, transmission, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and preventative measures.

Diez años de seguimiento de la leptospirosis humana en Uruguay: un problema de salud no resuelto

Leptospira spp. are delicate bacteria that cannot be studied by usual microbiological methods. They cause leptospirosis, a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans through infected urine of wild or domestic animals. We studied the incidence of this disease in the Uruguayan population, its epidemiologic and clinical features, and compared diagnostic techniques. After examining 6,778 suspect cases, we estimated that about 15 infections/100,000 inhabitants occurred yearly, affecting mainly young male rural workers. Awareness about leptospirosis has grown among health professionals, and its lethality has consequently decreased. Bovine infections were probably the principal source of human disease. Rainfall volumes and floods were major factors of varying incidence. Most patients had fever, asthenia, myalgias or cephalalgia, with at least one additional abnormal clinical feature. 30-40% of confirmed cases presented abdominal signs and symptoms, conjunctival suffusion and altered renal or urinary function. Jaundice was more frequent in patients aged > 40 years. Clinical infections followed an acute pattern and their usual outcome was complete recovery. Laboratory diagnosis was based on indirect micro-agglutination standard technique (MAT). Second serum samples were difficult to obtain, often impairing completion of diagnosis. Immunofluorescence was useful as a screening test and for early detection of probable infections.

A ten-year follow-up of human leptospirosis in Uruguay: an unresolved health problem

Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 2012

Current Status of Leptospirosis: A Zoonotic Tropical Disease

Int J Microbiol Curr Res, 2019

Leptospirosis occurs all over the globe but is maximum in the tropics. Leptospirosis, a spirochaetal zoonotic infection, has been documented as a significant rising infectious disease in the last several years. This review deals with the concerns in the epidemiology, diagnosis and clinical management which tackle community health responses, and focuses the advancement completed towards considerate the Leptospira genome, biology and pathogenesis. Although numerous wild and household animals can offer out as reservoir hosts, the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) is the chief basis of human infections. Persons residing in city slum environments described by insufficient hygiene and poor shelter are at elevated risk of rat contact and leptospirosis. Antimicrobial treatment is specified for the severe leptospirosis, however its use is notorious for the mild form of leptospirosis. In a so-called outbreak, efforts to diagnose leptospirosis must be expectant to enable punctual treatment. For outbreaks in distant or areas with deprived access, limited utilization of screening tests to identify antibody is helpful. When an outbreak of leptospirosis is suspected or recognized, and if it has been promising to identify the attendant concerned, the source must be identified and appropriate environmental measures implemented, with public information to community at danger (including clinicians as well as health care employees and health authorities).

Methods And Compositions Of Protein Antigens For The Diagnosis And Treatment Of Toxoplasma Gondii Infections And Toxoplasmosis (original) (raw)

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