A moderated mediation model of job stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention for airport security screeners (original) (raw)
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Searching for Possible Threat Items to Safe Air Travel: Human Error and Training
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2007
An eye-tracking experiment is reported which investigates the underlying factors that affect training in the visual search of air passenger luggage for possible threat items so as to reduce errors and improve safe air travel. In this study, naïve observers learned to search for terrorist threat items of guns, knives and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in airport passengers' X-ray luggage images. During training, each participant viewed the same number of learning trials of guns, knives or IEDs. Transfer performance was measured in a same search task in which each participant was more familiar with the visual appearance of half of the test targets. Detection performance and eye movement data both showed improvement in the efficiency of search and recognition with practice, while the skills were stimulus-specific so that performance was degraded when novel targets were introduced. Perceptual learning and human errors of the implications for screener training are discussed.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2008
The present study examines the relative importance of a series of known and expected factors that highly affect threat detection performance in aviation security X-ray screening. Examined image based factors were threat item view difficulty, threat item superposition, bag complexity and bag size. Further, also the two human/demographic factors X-ray image interpretation training and age were examined. Image measurements and performance statistics for factors estimation are introduced. Three statistical approaches were applied in order to examine the impact of the introduced factors on threat detection performance and revealed consistent results. Bivariate correlations between detection performance and predictors/factors were analysed to estimate the isolated impact of each single factor independently of any other. Multiple linear regression analyses were applied for estimating the overall impact of all image based factors and human/demographic factors respectively. And analyses of covariance were applied in order to check for possible interaction effects between all factors of the models. All analyses were applied separately for the four threat item categories guns, knives, improvised explosive devices and other.
In response to the increased risk of terrorist attacks, large investments have been made in recent years in aviation security technology. However, the best equipment is of limited value if the people who operate it are not selected and trained appropriately to perform their tasks effectively and accurately. Latterly, the relevance of human factors has increasingly been recognized. One important aspect of human factors is the competency of the personnel who conducts security screening at airports (aviation security screeners) and assessment of their competency.
Increasing airport security using the X-Ray ORT as effective pre-employment assessment tool
2006
X-ray screening is a demanding task. Threat objects can be superimposed by other objects, they can be difficult to recognize in cluttered bags, or when depicted from an unusual viewpoint. For improving airport security screening, it is essential to develop tests for pre-employment assessment in order to identify those people who are well-suited for the x-ray screening task. The X-Ray Object Recognition Test (X-Ray ORT) has been developed to measure how well people can cope with x-ray images in which threat items are superimposed by other objects, placed in cluttered bags, or depicted from unusual viewpoints. In this study, the X-Ray ORT was used in pre-employment assessment to select the 50 percent best performing candidates. These candidates(n=101) were then tested one year later using a standardized x-ray image interpretation test containing different types of prohibited items (X-Ray PIT). Detection performance of these screeners was significantly better than the performance of the other screening personnel (n = 453), that was not selected based on the X-Ray ORT. Additional analyses showed good reliability and validity of this test, indicating that the X-Ray ORT is a very useful tool for pre-employment assessment in order to increase the x-ray screening performance.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2011
In a simulated task of airport security inspection for threat items of knives, guns and IEDs, the difference between screeners and naïve people was analysed in terms of detection performance, attention allocation and workload. The detection performance of screeners was significantly better than that of naïve people. Compared to naïve observers, screeners concentrated on one or two potential threat items and ignored some irrelevant contents in the X-ray images which are showed by fixation maps. In order to understand how observers missed targets the workload between hit and miss decisions was compared. Unfortunately, there was no difference on workload when they hit or missed the targets where the dwell time on the targets of the hit decisions was longer than that of miss decisions. The findings may highlight how the search expertise is developed and provide information for improving training program.
Detection of Terrorist Threats in Air Passenger Luggage: Expertise Development
2007 41st Annual IEEE International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, 2007
Currently, detecting potential threats in air passenger baggage heavily depends on the human examination of X-ray images of individual luggage items. In order to improve the performance of airport security personnel in searching images of air passenger luggage it is important first to understand fully the requirements of the demanding task. Here, an experiment is reported where eye movements of naive observers and screeners were recorded when they searched 30 X-ray images of air passenger luggage for potential terrorist threat items such as guns, knives and improvised explosive devices. Compared with novices, the advantages of the screeners were speed and accuracy in detecting threats. Eye position data revealed that screeners were faster to fixate on target areas and once they fixated on targets their hit rate was significantly higher. Most of the IEDs were missed by both naive observers and screeners due to interpretation errors which indicated the importance of training. Stimulus salience at the first fixation locations of naive observers and screeners was compared to investigate expertise development. It was found that experience did not change attention preference on stimuli properties at the beginning of the observers visual search. The implications and further studies are discussed.
Increasing X-ray image interpretation competency of cargo security screeners
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 2014
a b s t r a c t X-ray screening of containers and unit load devices in the area of cargo shipping is becoming an essential and common feature at ports and airports all over the world. The detection of prohibited items in X-ray images is a challenging task for screening officers as they need to know which items are prohibited and what they look like in X-ray images. The main aim of this study was to investigate whether X-ray image interpretation competency of cargo security screeners can be increased by computer-based training. More specifically, effects of training were investigated by conducting tests before training started and after approximately three months of training. Moreover, it was examined whether viewing X-ray images in pseudo color would lead to a better detection performance compared to when X-ray images are shown in greyscale. Recurrent computer-based training resulted in large performance increases after three months. No significant difference in detection performance could be found for tests when using X-ray images in greyscale vs. pseudo color. Relevance to industry: Cargo X-ray screening is becoming a common feature at ports and airports. The identification and detection of prohibited items in X-ray images highly depends on human operators and their competences regarding X-ray image interpretation. Thus, research on appropriate training methods and enhancements of the human factor are essential to achieve and maintain high levels of security.
Assessment of X-ray image interpretation competency of aviation security screeners
43rd Annual 2009 International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, 2009
The competency of an aviation security screener to detect prohibited items in X-ray images quickly and reliably is important for any airport security system. This paper details the requirements and principles for reliable, valid, and standardized competency assessment as well as different methods that can be applied for this purpose. First, the concepts of reliability, validity and standardization are explained. Then, threat image projection (TIP) as a means to assess X-ray image interpretation competency is discussed. This is followed by a discussion of computer-based tests, which provide another often more reliable and standardized option for measuring x-ray image interpretation competency. Finally, the application of computerbased tests in an EU funded project (VIA Project, www.viaproject.eu) are presented.