An archaeometric assessment study of Seljuk period glazed tiles from Kılıçarslan Square (Konya, Turkey) (original) (raw)
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Compositional investigation and phase identification of 13th century Anatolian Seljuk glazed tiles
Glazed tiles from five madrasas built in Anatolia by Seljuks during 13th century were examined using multi-analytical techniques to discover production processes, firing temperatures, raw materials and nature of col-orants used. Turquoise colored glazes were assessed to be of the type tin-opacified lead-alkali whereas the violet-brown colored glaze was determined to be of the transparent alkali type. Copper and manganese were identified to be responsible for the turquoise and violet-brown color of the glazes, respectively. Firing temperatures of the glazes were estimated using polymerization indices calculated by using Raman spectra of the samples and assessed to be in the range of 800−1000°C. Bodies of the glazes were determined to be produced using quartz, low calcareous and non-calcareous clays. No slip layers were observed between the glaze and the body in the samples. Gas bubbles observed inside the glaze layers in some of the samples suggested that glazes might have been applied on a non-fired body. Tin-opacified lead-alkali glazes investigated in this study were suggested to be produced in the specialist centers in Anatolia which were limited in quantity during the Seljuk period.
2021
The analytical characterization of cultural heritage materials has a great importance in terms of gaining the scientific knowledge which provides guidance for conservation applications covering the reintegration and reproduction processes needed in protection. In this study, the glazed tile samples of a 15th century monument located in southeast Anatolia are investigated and a comprehensive archaeometric data for restoration and conservation is created. XRF and EDX were used to reveal the chemical composition of tile bodies and particularly the glazes. SEM and petrography analyses were employed to examine the micro and macro structural features of the bodies, respectively. Samples were exposed to X-ray diffraction for characterization of the mineral/phase contents. Furthermore, thermogravimetric differential thermal analysis and Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry were the complementary methods. The mineralogical content of the samples suggested a firing temperature of ca 850-900 o C. The chemical composition of the tile fabrics indicated use of calcareous raw materials due to relatively high CaO content. It was deduced that the alkaline and lead oxides were the main components of the glazes, with low lead oxide (˂5 wt.%) for the samples PS-2, PS-4, PS-5 and PS-6. It was also seen that the blue/green turquoise colors were obtained with copper, whereas blue itself was due to cobalt. Tin was occasionally detected in chemical composition of some glazed surfaces, and its presence was mostly attributed to the purpose of gaining opaqueness.
The production of the tiles in Ottoman Empire had begun as a continued workshop of Seldjuk ceramic art, and after this initial phase, its own technology was introduced into Ottoman art by local craftsmen. Iznik tiles are among the most appreciated pottery masterpieces, and wall decoration in tiles is a significant asset of Unesco World Heritage Edirne mosques. Rare glaze composition studies have been made, which justify the need for more comprehensive studies. We present here the first on-site elemental analyses performed with portable XRF instrument in four of the most representative mosques in Edirne (Şah Melek Paşa (1429), Muradiye (1435–1436), Üç Şerefeli (1410–1447) and Selimiye (1569–1575)). A handheld 785 nm Raman spectrometer was used as a complementary technique to identify some pigments. About forty tiles have been analysed in this research. Additionally, two tiles from Yeşilce Mosque (1442, Edirne) have been analysed at the Selimiye Foundation Museum. The weight percent of the elements measured with pXRF are normalized by Si amount in order to eliminate the variation due to the positioning shifts. Different glazing technologies are evidenced (Master of Tabriz Sn-free glazed tiles, Hünkar Mahfili Sn-poor glazed tiles, and Sn-(Bi) rich ones). At least three different cobalt ores have been used (with characteristic Cu, Ni, Mn and Bi content) in blue decors. Use of a chromium-based ore is demonstrated for some Selimiye Hünkar Mahfili tiles. The link between Şah Melek Paşa and polychrome (mihrab) Muradiye tiles and Seldjuk production is established. On the contrary, the technology of Üç Şerefeli and blue-and-white Muradiye tiles is unique and appears a precursor of 16th-century Iznik production. Bismuth, Sn/Pb, Co/Mn, and Co/Ni ratio appears very useful to compare the different glazes and to identify mining sources of cobalt.
A limited number of studies concerning Ottoman ceramic technology have been performed using the scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy techniques. The discovery of the ceramics, which were described as 'Iznik', at excavation sites outside of the city of Iznik, caused disagreements over the exact origin of Iznik products. In this study, bodies, glazes, and pigments of 46 tile/ceramic shards of unknown origin, which were supplied from the vaults of Topkapı Palace Museum, and two reference tile fragments, known as Kütahya products, supplied from the demolished Surp Krikor Lusavoriç church and, additionally, two Iznik reference tiles were examined using the scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy techniques. Results of both techniques were evaluated together for the first time to determine the power of nondestructive Raman spectroscopy technique in differentiation of Ottoman tiles. In this work, bodies of the Kütahya tiles were found to be different than Iznik and Tekfur stone-paste bodies, which are rich in clay rather than quartz. Two different lead-alkali glaze compositions were found for Kütahya tiles; one was rich in PbO (over 35%) and the other one was rich in alkali (PbO less than 25%). Barite inclusions were detected in the bodies and in the glazes of some Ottoman tiles, which could be the fingerprint for the Kütahya products. It was found that the under glaze red decoration is essentially a mixture of hematite and quartz in different proportions. Shades of red decoration mainly depend on the amount of hematite in the mixture. Sixteenth century tomato red decoration contains more quartz compared with 17th century dark red decoration. This study showed that a similar technology was also applied at Kütahya in the 16th century. A linear correlation was found between the position of the Raman intense stretching peak Q 3 and lead oxide content of lead-alkali glazes, which could allow for the differentiation of Ottoman tiles based on the nondestructive Raman analysis. This study provides an important additional reference data and discussion for the Ottoman tiles.
Scientific analysis of glazed tile from the Seljuq palace of Kubad-Abad (with Z Yegingil and R Arik)
Freestone I, Yegingil Z and Arik R (2009) Scientific analysis of glazed tile from the Seljuq palace of Kubad-Abad, Lake Beysehir, Turkey. Scientific Research on Historic Asian Ceramics, Proceedings of 4th Forbes Symposium, Washington DC pp 3-8., 2008
The palace of Kubad-Âbâd was built on the instructions of the Seljuq Sultan Alâeddin Keykubad I. Excavations have recovered large quantities of decorated glazed wall tile, typically in the familiar "star and cross" pattern. We have analyzed fifty tiles, using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry for major elements and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry for trace elements. Selected tiles were subjected to petrographic thin-section analysis and to scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometry for technological analysis of glazes and pigments. All the tiles are stonepaste bodies coated with an alkali-silica glaze. Black underglaze decoration is typically executed in crushed chromite. Turquoise is due to copper, and deep blue colors are due to cobalt; in some cases the cobalt pigment was mixed with fine-grained quartz to minimize bleeding into the glaze. Luster-decorated star-shaped tiles have tin-opacified glazes, but most glazes are translucent. The tiles were subdivided into visual types based upon shape, technique, motif, and color. Typically four-six tiles of each type were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. Each type of star tile can be matched compositionally to a single cross type in terms of major and trace elements. Each star-cross pair forms a compositional group, which can be distinguished from other star-cross groups and from the monochrome tiles. Each group is distinguished in terms of decorative style, decorative technique, body recipe (clay:glass:quartz), and the elemental composition of the clay used. The compositional groups represent individual commissions, as tiles were ordered for different rooms in the palace. The differences in style, technique, and technology among the groups suggest that they were produced by more than one group of tile makers. Archaeological evidence suggests that some, perhaps all, of the tiles were made in the vicinity of Kubad-Âbâd. However, at least one tile group has a very different body composition and was made using a calcareous clay, whereas the others were made using kaolinitic clays. This group may have been imported.
Multi – Analytical Characterization of XVII Century Mughal Glaze Tiles from Northern India
2017
Glazed tile art work is a technique that has been employed for decoration in most of the Mughal monuments during 16 – 17th Century in India. Dakhni Sarai is one of the finest and best preserved specimens of Mughal caravan sarais from India. Glaze tile samples of Dakhni Sarai were analyzed for glaze segments and colours that were used during the Mughal era. The samples were studied using stereomicroscopic analysis, EMPA – WDS, SEM EDX and by thermal analysis using DTA/TGA. The EMPA-WDS results indicated the usage of lead colorants – tin for yellow glazes, copper cobalt for blue glazes, and a mixture of two for green glaze tiles. The thickness and slip fusion of the tiles with the inner have also been studied. The result showed that oxides of copper/cobalt/lead used as colorant in varied proportion have imparted color to the glaze under different firing environment and temperature. The presence of copper/cobalt could be either due to its deliberate addition as part of the manufacturin...
The composition and production of pre-modern glazed tiles in Pakistan are not well understood. Here, 38 glazed tile samples sourced from various monuments at Makli Hill and Lahore Fort in Pakistan, dating mainly from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries CE, were investigated with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry for a comprehensive technological study to understand the methods used in their production. The analyses were supplemented by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry to more fully characterise the raw materials used for the glazes. The Makli tile bodies are composed of clay-based ceramic whereas those from Lahore are stonepaste. Both are coated with soda-lime-silica glazes made using plant ash. Cobalt, copper, lead‑tin yellow and lead‑tin orange are identified as the glaze colorants. White glazes do not have an added opacifier or colorant, but are white due to the presence of an underlying layer of silica particles. Technological variations between the Makli and Lahore tiles are highlighted in the discussions, the former found to resemble traditional kashi ware of Sindh-Multan in their make-up, while the latter matches Mughal tile-work that prevailed for a while locally in the seventeenth century.
Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 2011
A limited number of studies concerning Ottoman ceramic technology have been performed using the scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy techniques. The discovery of the ceramics, which were described as 'Iznik', at excavation sites outside of the city of Iznik, caused disagreements over the exact origin of Iznik products. In this study, bodies, glazes, and pigments of 46 tile/ceramic shards of unknown origin, which were supplied from the vaults of Topkapı Palace Museum, and two reference tile fragments, known as Kütahya products, supplied from the demolished Surp Krikor Lusavoriç church and, additionally, two Iznik reference tiles were examined using the scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy techniques. Results of both techniques were evaluated together for the first time to determine the power of nondestructive Raman spectroscopy technique in differentiation of Ottoman tiles. In this work, bodies of the Kütahya tiles were found to be different than Iznik and Tekfur stone-paste bodies, which are rich in clay rather than quartz. Two different lead-alkali glaze compositions were found for Kütahya tiles; one was rich in PbO (over 35%) and the other one was rich in alkali (PbO less than 25%). Barite inclusions were detected in the bodies and in the glazes of some Ottoman tiles, which could be the fingerprint for the Kütahya products. It was found that the under glaze red decoration is essentially a mixture of hematite and quartz in different proportions. Shades of red decoration mainly depend on the amount of hematite in the mixture. Sixteenth century tomato red decoration contains more quartz compared with 17th century dark red decoration. This study showed that a similar technology was also applied at Kütahya in the 16th century. A linear correlation was found between the position of the Raman intense stretching peak Q 3 and lead oxide content of lead-alkali glazes, which could allow for the differentiation of Ottoman tiles based on the nondestructive Raman analysis. This study provides an important additional reference data and discussion for the Ottoman tiles.
Characterization of 17th Century Mughal tile glazes from Shahdara Complex, Lahore-Pakistan
Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2013
The glazed tile decorative art was one of the widely used ornamental techniques for the monumental buildings during the Mughal period, in Pakistan. Coloured tile samples from Jahangir tomb were analyzed to know the glaze composition and to identify the colouring phases used at that time. The study was performed using light microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analyzer (SEM-EDS), Raman spectroscopy (RS) and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA). These complementary analytical techniques allowed characterizing the samples as alkali glazes made from plant ashes. The results indicated the use of lead-tin yellow type II for yellow glazes, cobalt and copper for blue glazes, mixtures of yellow and blue glazes for the green glazes, manganese for purple glazes, and a transparent glaze layer for white glazes.