Is competitive body-building pathological? Survey of 984 male strength trainers (original) (raw)
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Iranian journal of public health, 2015
The high prevalence and potential side effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) misuse by athletes has made it a major public health concern. Epidemiological studies on the abuse of such drugs are mandatory for developing effective preventive drug control programs in sports community. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of AAS abuse and their association with some psycho-socio-demographic factors in Iranian male recreational body-builders. Between March and October 2011; 906 recreational male body-builders from 103 randomly selected bodybuilding clubs in Tehran, Iran were participated in this study. Some psycho-socio- demographic factors including age, job, average family income, family size, sport experience (months), weekly duration of the sporting activity (h), purpose of participation in sporting activity, mental health as well as body image (via General Health Questionnaire and Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, respectively), and history of AAS...
Muscle Dysmorphia and its Associated Psychological Features in Three Groups of Recreational Athletes
Scientific Reports
Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) is a psychological disorder characterized by the preoccupation with the idea that one's body is not lean and muscular. The current study aimed to explore MD behaviours and symptoms in three groups of recreational athletes: bodybuilders (BB; n = 42), strength athletes (SA; n = 61), and fitness practitioners (FP; n = 22). Furthermore, we assessed MD-related psychological features as well as possible psychological predictors of MD among groups. Results highlighted that the BB group reported more beliefs about being smaller and weaker than desired compared to the other groups, whereas individuals in the SA group reported setting higher standards for themselves than the FP group. Lastly, orthorexia nervosa and social anxiety symptoms emerged as predictors of MD symptoms in the BB group. Taken together, our findings suggest that individuals in the BB group are characterized by more MD general symptomatology than those in the other groups; furthermore, only orthorexia nervosa and social anxiety may play a specific role in predicting MD general symptoms in bodybuilders. Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) is a subtype of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) characterized by the preoccupation with the idea that one's body is not sufficiently lean and muscular 1-3. Individuals with MD perceive themselves as small and weak even if they look normal or very muscular 2. As a consequence, individuals with MD engage in behaviours aimed at achieving the desired lean and muscular physique 2 ; these behaviours are compulsive and are comprised of excessive exercise and rigid diet, excessive use of dietary supplements and, sometimes, may also include the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) 2,4-6. Individuals with MD frequently avoid important social or occupational activities because of the compulsive need to maintain their excessive exercise and rigid diet 2,4. MD affects mostly men 2 , and its prevalence rates vary significantly depending on the sample population; in particular, athletes involved in resistance training may be at increased risk for MD development compared to other athletes and non-trainers 2,7. However, a generalization for all athletes involved in resistance training activities does not appear to be justified. A discrepancy of MD prevalence and features among subgroups within the resistance training community exists and is dependent on the goals of the weight training activity 8. Indeed, athletes who engage in appearance-related resistance training (e.g., bodybuilders) may be at increased risk for MD development than athletes involved in resistance training to improve strength (e.g., weightlifters) 8. In fact, many studies have underlined that bodybuilders display higher MD prevalence rates and more MD features than other resistance training athletes 2,8-11 with prevalence rates ranging from 3.4% 9 to 53.6% 12 within this population. Therefore, differences in goals characterizing bodybuilders and other resistance training athletes may influence the prevalence and the manifestation of MD 13. Although bodybuilders are considered at increased risk for developing MD 2,7,8 , the study by Pickett et al. 14 reported that competitive bodybuilders did not differ from other resistance training athletes with respect to the self-evaluation of their body image; furthermore, both groups reported higher positive self-evaluation of their body than physically active controls. Moreover, both competitive bodybuilders and resistance training athletes were more satisfied about their upper torso muscles and general muscle tone than physically active controls. Finally, competitive bodybuilders reported higher levels of social self-esteem
In Pursuit of Physical Perfection: Weight Lifting and Steroid Use in Men
2006
This study used a qualitative method to examine eight men's motivations for weight lifting and steroid use. Results indicated that these men desired self-improvement, but their goal of obtaining the ideal masculine body became all-consuming and impeded their social and occupational functioning. Complex cognitive, interpersonal, mental health and personality issues became evident. In-depth assessment, accurate case conceptualization, and creative and individualized counseling or treatment are recommended for helping these individuals reach their goal of self-improvement in a healthier manner.
Deviant Behavior
This study investigated eating and deviant behaviors in bodybuilders according to their competitive engagement. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 bodybuilders of different skill levels. Results revealed that dietary strategies and deviations (e.g., disordered eating, doping use, addictive training) developed with competitive commitment. Bodybuilders who intend to engage in competition are in a critical period for the development of deviant behaviors, in relation with increasing drive for muscularity and performance, and coaching pressure. These findings extend the existing literature on deviant behaviors in bodybuilding by providing better insight in the dynamics of development of disordered eating and associated behaviors.
Muscle dysmorphia and psychopathology: Findings from an Italian sample of male bodybuilders
Psychiatry research, 2017
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the risk of muscle dysmorphia and psychopathological symptoms in an Italian sample of male bodybuilders. The sample was recruited online (145 men with a mean age of 30.0 years) and participants were asked to fill out the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI), Symptom Cheklist-90-R (SCL-90-R), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-II), and to provide other socio-demographic data. Bodybuilders at risk of muscle dysmorphia display greater global psychopathology and present higher scores on all SCL-90-R dimensions when compared to bodybuilders not at risk of muscle dysmorphia. Furthermore, risk of muscle dysmorphia is positively associated to dissociative symptoms. The Competitiveness dimension and anabolic steroid intake were not related to muscle dysmorphia, while age appeared to be more significant. Findings are discussed based upon previous studies and directions for future research are suggested.
Muscle Dysmorphia: A Comparison Between Competitive Bodybuilders and Fitness Practitioners
Journal of Nutritional Therapeutics, 2012
Objective: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the features of Muscle Dysmorphia and other body image-related concerns in a sample of competitive male bodybuilders. Method: We screened 217 male athletes, 119 bodybuilders and 98 fitness practitioners, recruited in 12 gymnasiums in Southern Italy, by means of an ad hoc sociodemographic schedule, the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) and the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS). Results: Twenty one of the bodybuilders (17.6%) show high levels of preoccupation and dissatisfaction with their muscularity, 45.4% (N=54) a marked dependence on bodybuilding; 35.3% (N=42) follow a high-protein diet and 35.3% (N=42) used vitamin supplements to improve their weightlifting performances and favor post-training physical recovery. In addition, forty-three (36.1%) also report use of substance while nine subjects (7.6%) declare to avoid situations in which their body might be seen or manifest high levels of distress when this happens. The ANCOVA (Exercise Frequency per Week as a covariate) results indicate that bodybuilders, compared to fitness practitioners, report significant elevations in all measures. Moreover, considering only the bodybuilders sample, who report a regular use of substance scored higher in Dietary Behavior, Body size-symmetry, Physique Protection, Supplement Use MDI scales and on Body building Dependence, Muscle Checking and Injury MASS subscales. Discussion: Our findings seem to suggest that the practice of the bodybuilding is associated to the proposed criteria of muscle dysmorphia if compared with regular fitness practice. In particular, we found that a regular use of substance was associated with greater dissatisfaction with muscularity.
Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors
Clinical Psychology Review, 2005
Developing a lean muscular figure for the purposes of sports and/or appearance has become a central issue for males. Concern has been raised because the desire to develop such a body build may lead to the adoption of numerous health-threatening behaviors. Consequently, this review presents a comprehensive analysis of the physical and psychological consequences that result from the use of steroids (legal and illegal), ephedrine, and deleterious dieting strategies specific to males. Putative risk factors for these behaviors will be identified, and the clinical disorder associated with the extreme abuse of these behaviors, muscle dysmorphia, will be examined. D
Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 2018
Background:Anabolicandrogenicsteroids(AAS)arecurrentlyusedbymanyathletesforskeletalmuscledevelopment.Theaimof thisstudywastoevaluatetheprevalenceof AASuseamongbodybuilderathletesinIranat2015. Methods:Inthisdescriptive-analyticalcross-sectionalstudy384bodybuildersfilledthestudyquestionnaireevaluatingage,education,andageatAASuseasunderlyingvariables;patternof AASuseasindependentvariable;andknowledgeaboutAASsideeffects andtherelationbetweenmentalhealthandAASuseasdependentvariables.DatawasanalyzedbySPSSusingfrequencytables,mean andstandarddeviation,chi-2,t-test,analysisof variancesandregression. Results: Among 920 participants, 104 (11.3%) were current users, and 210 (22.8%) had the history of usage. Physical attraction was reason of use in 57.6% and increasing power and ability to enter professional sport were reasons for use in 44 participants each (21.2%). The marital status, age and education level did not have significant effects on AAS use. Friends (76.7%) and coaches (67.4%) hadsignificantcorrelationwithAASuseinparticipants(P< 0.000). Thesimultaneoususeof alcohol(46.5%)andsmoking(27.9%) amongAASuserswassignificant(P< 0.001). Only4.7% of participantshadproperinformationaboutAASsideeffects. Conclusions: The participants had little knowledge about AAS side effects, therefore educating adolescents and youth in high schools and universities, and also in sports clubs is necessary. Periodical assessment of coaches and athletes with regard to AAS use,andproperlawenforcementinthisregardisimportant. Keywords: AnabolicAndrogenicSteroids,MentalHealth,Bodybuilding
Recent research into the use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) in fitness and strength training environments have revealed great variance in users’ approach to AAS use and more specifically their approach to health risks and desired objectives. However, there have only been few attempts to develop theoretical frameworks directed at conceptualising the variance in AAS use. In this paper, we propose a unified framework in the form of a typology which concerns individuals’ general approach to AAS use. The typology is based on sociologist Max Weber’s method on the ideal typology. The work comes out of the authors’ own qualitative empirical research on male AAS users in fitness and strength training environments, but is also related to and draws on the international literature on the subject. The suggested typology consists of four ideal types: the Expert type, the Well-being type, the YOLO type, and the Athlete type. The four types are developed around two overarching categories, namely users’ approach to risk and effectiveness. The typology outlines distinct and characteristic approaches to AAS use and can, thus, be employed as a heuristic tool for investigation and explanation.
Addiction & Health, 2018
Background The growing tendency to anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and prohibited substances misuse by female athletes is a new public health concern. Epidemiological studies in this field are necessary to introduce an effective preventive drug control program in gyms. This study directed to evaluate the prevalence of AAS and other banned substances use and assess its association with some psycho-social and also demographic parameters among Iranian female recreational bodybuilders. Methods This study was done from January to March 2017 and 289 recreational female bodybuilders from 41 randomly-selected fitness and sports clubs in different geographic parts of Tehran, Iran, were included. Age, education level, months of sport involvement, frequency of sport participation in a week (hour), body image assessed by Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), and history of AAS and substances intake as the psycho-socio-demographic parameters were recorded by interviews u...