Inefficient establishment of KSHV latency suggests an additional role for continued lytic replication in Kaposi sarcoma pathogenesis (original) (raw)
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Reactivation and Lytic Replication of Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus: An Update
Frontiers in Microbiology, 2017
The life cycle of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) consists of two phases, latent and lytic. The virus establishes latency as a strategy for avoiding host immune surveillance and fusing symbiotically with the host for lifetime persistent infection. However, latency can be disrupted and KSHV is reactivated for entry into the lytic replication. Viral lytic replication is crucial for efficient dissemination from its long-term reservoir to the sites of disease and for the spread of the virus to new hosts. The balance of these two phases in the KSHV life cycle is important for both the virus and the host and control of the switch between these two phases is extremely complex. Various environmental factors such as oxidative stress, hypoxia, and certain chemicals have been shown to switch KSHV from latency to lytic reactivation. Immunosuppression, unbalanced inflammatory cytokines, and other viral co-infections also lead to the reactivation of KSHV. This review article summarizes the current understanding of the initiation and regulation of KSHV reactivation and the mechanisms underlying the process of viral lytic replication. In particular, the central role of an immediate-early gene product RTA in KSHV reactivation has been extensively investigated. These studies revealed multiple layers of regulation in activation of RTA as well as the multifunctional roles of RTA in the lytic replication cascade. Epigenetic regulation is known as a critical layer of control for the switch of KSHV between latency and lytic replication. The viral non-coding RNA, PAN, was demonstrated to play a central role in the epigenetic regulation by serving as a guide RNA that brought chromatin remodeling enzymes to the promoters of RTA and other lytic genes. In addition, a novel dimension of regulation by microPeptides emerged and has been shown to regulate RTA expression at the protein level. Overall, extensive investigation of KSHV reactivation and lytic replication has revealed a sophisticated regulation network that controls the important events in KSHV life cycle.
Journal of Virology, 2002
Latency-associated nuclear antigen 1 (LANA1) of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is implicated in the maintenance of the viral genome during latent infection. LANA1 colocalizes with KSHV episomes on the host chromosome and mediates their maintenance by attaching these viral structures to host chromosomes. Data from long-term selection of drug resistance in cells conferred by plasmids containing the terminal repeat (TR) sequence of KSHV revealed that KSHV TRs and LANA1 act as cis and trans elements of viral latent replication, respectively. In this study, we further characterized the cis-and trans-acting elements of KSHV latent replication by using a transient replication assay with a methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme, DpnI. Transient reporter and replication assays disclosed that the orientation and basal transcriptional activity of TR constructs did not significantly affect the efficiency of replication. However, at least two TR units were necessary for efficient replication. The N-terminal 90 amino acids comprising the chromosomebinding domain of LANA1 were required for the mediation of LANA1 C-terminal DNA-binding and dimerization domains to support the transient replication of KSHV TRs. LANA1 interacted with components of the origin recognition complexes (ORCs), similar to Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 1. Our data suggest that LANA1 recruits ORCs to KSHV TRs for latent replication of the viral genome.
The kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus: a model for viral oncogenesis
2002
Kaposi´s sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumor arising in HIV-infected patients and remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among the AIDS population in the developing world. The recent discovery of the etiologic agent of KS, the Kaposi´s sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV), has invigorated new awareness of this unique neoplasm. Indeed, examination of the KSHV genome has revealed numerous genes that may contribute to the development of the spindle cell, the dominant cell in KS lesions. Here the authors survey the current knowledge on how KSHV-encoded genes play integral roles in transformation, cell survival, and neoangiogenesis through the transduction of signals from viral-encoded genes to the host cell nucleus. These signaling pathways likely affect the expression of cellular genes involved in KS pathogenesis. Since signaling pathways have proven to be successful drug targets in the past and their role in Kaposi´s sarcoma is becoming apparent, viral-encoded survival genes are emerging targets for the development of drug research. It is therefore of utmost importance to further define their involvement in KS pathogenesis.
Cancer Research, 2020
Kaposi sarcoma is the most common cancer in human immunodeficiency virus–positive individuals and is caused by Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpesvirus (KSHV). It is believed that a small number of latently infected Kaposi sarcoma tumor cells undergo spontaneous lytic reactivation to produce viral progeny for infection of new cells. Here, we use matched donor-derived human dermal blood and lymphatic endothelial cells (BEC and LEC, respectively) to show that KSHV-infected BECs progressively lose viral genome as they proliferate. In sharp contrast, KSHV-infected LECs predominantly entered lytic replication, underwent cell lysis, and released new virus. Continuous lytic cell lysis and de novo infection allowed LEC culture to remain infected for a prolonged time. Because of the strong propensity of LECs toward lytic replication, LECs maintained virus as a population, despite the death of individual host cells from lytic lysis. The master regulator of lymphatic development, Prox1, bound the...
Future Microbiology, 2011
Latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA) is encoded by the Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) open reading frame 73. LANA is expressed during latent KSHV infection of cells, including tumor cells, such as primary effusion lymphoma, KS and multicentric Castleman’s disease. Latently infected cells have multiple extrachromosomal copies of covalently closed circular KSHV genomes (episomes) that are stably maintained in proliferating cells. LANA’s best characterized function is that of mediating episome persistence. It does so by binding terminal repeat sequences to the chromosomal matrix, thus ensuring episome replication with each cell division and efficient DNA segregation to daughter nuclei after mitosis. To achieve these functions, LANA associates with different host cell proteins, including chromatin-associated proteins and proteins involved in DNA replication. In addition to episome maintenance, LANA has transcriptional regulatory effects and affects cell growth....
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV): Molecular biology and oncogenesis
2009
Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a double-stranded DNA herpesvirus belonging to the c-herpesvirinae subfamily. KSHV has been associated with the development of three neoplastic diseases: Kaposi sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman disease (MCD). In this review, we discuss the three KSHV-associated malignancies, KSHV genome, latent and lytic aspects of the viral lifecycle, putative viral oncogenes, as well as therapeutic regimens used for the treatment of KS, PEL, and MCD.
Cancer Cell, 2007
Transfection of a Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) herpesvirus (KSHV) Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (KSHVBac36) into mouse bone marrow endothelial lineage cells generates a cell (mECK36) that forms KS-like tumors in mice. mECK36 expressed most KSHV genes and were angiogenic, but didn't form colonies in soft agar. In nude mice, mECK36 formed KSHV-harboring vascularized spindle-cell sarcomas that were LANA+/podoplanin+, overexpressed VEGF and Angiopoietin ligands and receptors, and displayed KSHV and host transcriptomes reminiscent of KS. mECK36 that lost the KSHV episome reverted to non-tumorigenicity. siRNA suppression of KSHV vGPCR, an angiogenic gene up-regulated in mECK36 tumors, inhibited angiogenicity and tumorigenicity. These results show that KSHV malignancy is in vivo growth-restricted and reversible, defining mECK36 as a biologically sensitive animal model of KSHV-dependent KS.
Establishment and Maintenance of Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Latency in B Cells
Journal of Virology, 2005
Kaposi's sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the infectious cause of Kaposi's sarcoma and is also associated with two B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases, primary effusion lymphoma and the plasmablastic form of multicentric Castleman's disease. KSHV is also found in the B-cell fraction of peripheral blood mononucleocytes of some KS patients. Despite in vivo infection of B cells and the ability of KSHV to infect many cell types in culture, to date B cells in culture have been resistant to KSHV infection. However, as shown here, the lack of infection is not due to the inability of B cells to support latent KSHV infection. When KSHV DNA is introduced into B cells, the virus is maintained as an episome and can establish and maintain latency over the course of months. As in all primary effusion lymphoma cell lines, there is a low level of spontaneous lytic replication in latently infected BJAB cells. Importantly, viral gene expression is similar to that of primary e...
Journal of Virology, 2000
Open reading frame (ORF) 57 of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) encodes a homolog of known posttranscriptional regulators that are essential for replication in other herpesviruses. Here, we examined the expression of this gene and the function(s) of its product. KSHV ORF 57 is expressed very early in infection from a 1.6-kb spliced RNA bearing several in-frame initiation codons. Its product is a nuclear protein that, in transient assays, has little effect on the expression of luciferase reporter genes driven by a variety of KSHV and heterologous promoters. However, ORF 57 protein enhances the accumulation of several viral transcripts, in a manner suggesting posttranscriptional regulation. These transcripts include not only known cytoplasmic mRNAs (e.g., ORF 59) but also a nuclear RNA (nut-1) that lacks coding potential. Finally, ORF 57 protein can also modulate the effects of the ORF 50 gene product, a classical transactivator known to be required for lytic induction. The expression from some (e.g., nut-1) but not all (e.g., tk) ORF 50-responsive promoters can be synergistically enhanced by coexpression of ORF 50 and ORF 57. This effect is not due to upregulation of ORF 50 expression but rather to a posttranslational enhancement of the transcriptional activity of ORF 50. These data indicate that ORF 57 is a powerful pleiotropic effector that can act on several posttranscriptional levels to modulate the expression of viral genes in infected cells.