Reducing the impact of mycotoxigenic fungi on food safety and security in Southern Africa (original) (raw)
Mycotoxins in food systems in Sub Saharan Africa: A review
Mycotoxin Research, 2006
Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi are now recognised as major cause of food intoxications in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). Aflatoxins, the most important of the group have been implicated in acute aflatoxicoses, carcinogenicity, growth retardation, neonatal jaundice and immunological suppression in SSA. The hot and humid tropical climate provides ideal condition for growth of toxigenic Aspergillus spp, making food contamination to be widespread in SSA, with maize and groundnuts being the most contaminated. The available data suggests that cassava products (the most important African food) are not prone to aflatoxin contamination. Recent data on ochratoxin A produced by species of Aspergillus on grains have indicated the necessity for it to be monitored in SSA. Fumonisins represent the most important Fusarium mycotoxins in SSA, and surveillance data indicate very high contamination rates of almost 100% in maize samples from West Africa. Limited information exists on the occurrence of trichothecenes, while the data currently available suggest that zearalenone contamination seems not to be a problem in SSA. The strategies under investigation to mitigate the mycotoxin problem in SSA include education of the people on the danger of consuming mouldy foods, pre and post harvest management strategies with emphasis on biological control, use of plant products to arrest fungal growth during storage, enterosorbent clay technology, and the search for traditional techniques that could reduce/detoxify mycotoxins during food processing.
An Overview on Mycotoxin Contamination of Foods in Africa
Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2014
Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate various feedstuffs and agricultural crops. The contamination of food by mycotoxins can occur before production, during storage, processing, transportation or marketing of the food products. High temperature, moisture content and water activity are among the predisposing factors that facilitate the production of mycotoxins in food. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are all considered the major mycotoxins produced in food and feedstuffs. In Africa, mycotoxin contamination is considered to be a major problem with implications that affect human and animal health and economy. Aflatoxin-related hepatic diseases are reported in many African countries. Ochratoxin and fumonisin toxicity in humans and animals is widespread in Africa. The available, updated information on the incidence of mycotoxin contamination, decontamination and its public health importance in Africa is lacking. The aim of this review is to highlight, update and discuss the available information on the incidence of mycotoxins in African countries. The public health implications and the recommended strategies for control of mycotoxins in food and agricultural crops are also discussed.
International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2008
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungal origin and contaminate agricultural commodities before or under post-harvest conditions. They are mainly produced by fungi in the Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera. When ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the skin, mycotoxins will cause lowered performance, sickness or death on humans and animals. Factors that contribute to mycotoxin contamination of food and feed in Africa include environmental, socioeconomic and food production. Environmental conditions especially high humidity and temperatures favour fungal proliferation resulting in contamination of food and feed. The socioeconomic status of majority of inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa predisposes them to consumption of mycotoxin contaminated products either directly or at various points in the food chain. The resulting implications include immuno-suppression, impaired growth, various cancers and death depending on the type, period and amount of exposure. A synergistic effect between mycotoxin exposure and some important diseases in the continent such as malaria, kwashiorkor and HIV/AIDS have been suggested. Mycotoxin concerns have grown during the last few decades because of their implications to human and animal health, productivity, economics of their management and trade. This has led to development of maximum tolerated limits for mycotoxins in various countries. Even with the standards in place, the greatest recorded fatal mycotoxin-poisoning outbreak caused by contamination of maize with aflatoxins occurred in Africa in 2004. Pre-harvest practices; time of harvesting; handling of produce during harvesting; moisture levels at harvesting, transportation, marketing and processing; insect damage all contribute to mycotoxin contamination. Possible intervention strategies include good agricultural practices such as early harvesting, proper drying, sanitation, proper storage and insect management among others. Other possible interventions include biological control, chemical control, decontamination, breeding for resistance as well as surveillance and awareness creation. There is need for efficient, cost-effective sampling and analytical methods that can be used for detection analysis of mycotoxins in developing countries.
Mycotoxins in Sub Saharan Africa present situation socio economic impact awareness and outlook
Many studies have reported the occurrence of mycotoxin in human foods and animal feeds in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, and zearalenone are among the most hazardous mycotoxins produced by fungal species, mainly in the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. Due to their high stability, mycotoxins are a cause of concern not only during crop production, but also in storage, transport, processing, and post-processing steps. Mycotoxin contamination is one factor that reduces the competitiveness of agricultural commodities from SSA for export. Moreover, these impurities negatively impact the health of humans and livestock which affects household security, livelihood, productivity, and income leading to significant costs and economic losses for the producing countries. Limited knowledge or awareness of most actors along the food and feed chain is considered to be one of the major problems which delay effective counter measures. In the last decades, various accurate and sensitive analytical methods have been developed to detect levels and composition of mycotoxins on food and feed samples such as HPLC, LC-MS, immuno-based assays, and optical methods. Nevertheless, immuno-based techniques are still the most useful for identifying mycotoxins in the field and farm levels as they can be conducted onsite. Although tolerable limits for mycotoxins have been established in many SSA countries, most contamination still exceeds maximum thresholds and continues to pose considerable risk to public health. To address mycotoxin problems in SSA, therefore, possible intervention strategies should provide support for capacity building and supply chain coordination, increased public awareness, and knowledge through education and extension, as well as improved incentives for management of fungal species.
Mycotoxins contamination in foods consumed in Uganda: A 12-year review (2006–18)
Scientific African, 2019
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites with a potential to have adverse effects on humans, animals, and crops. The rationale of this review was to examine the current status of mycotoxins in Uganda and the problems associated with these toxins. The commonly studied mycotoxins in Uganda are aflatoxins and fumonisins with aflatoxin B1 being the most prevalent. The review has shown that aflatoxin contamination reduces economic growth by 0.26% in Uganda owing to decline in productivity. Uganda loses 577 US million dollars annually as a result of 3700 aflatoxin-induced liver cancer cases. Aflatoxins contamination of sorghum, maize and peanuts causes a decline in exports valued at 7.48 US million dollars which accounts for 45% reduction in total agricultural exports. There are no fully developed strategies for the control of mycotoxins contamination in food and food products in Uganda. Regulations for monitoring foods susceptible to aflatoxins contamination should be put in place and strict measures on the quality of food at both household and market levels be enforced by all policy makers.
A review of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in feeds and food commodities in West Africa
World Mycotoxin Journal, 2023
Among the microorganisms associated with agricultural products, filamentous fungi pose the greatest risk to quality and safety (Adetunji et al., 2020). This is due to the fact that many filamentous fungi produce toxins that have significant economic consequences for a variety of crops, including cereals, nuts, tea, pistachios, and cotton seeds (Alshannaq and Yu, 2017). Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium species are among the most frequent and widespread fungi that contaminate agricultural products in Africa (Kemboi et al., 2020) and are capable of producing a wide variety of highly toxic metabolites in food commodities (Balendres et al., 2019). It is estimated that fungal metabolites contaminate 25% of the world's agricultural products (Eltariki et al., 2018). These species are found in various food commodities across West Africa; their relative dominance reflects that the tropical conditions (temperature and humidity) of this region are conducive for their development as well as the aerial dispersal of their spores. It is known that foodstuffs like maize, rice, beans, yam, cassava, peanuts, spices, and chilies have been affected by these toxigenic fungi (Abiala et al., 2011), which produce secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins produced by fungi include aflatoxins (AFs), beauvericin (BEA), citrinin (CIT), deoxynivalenol (DON),
World Mycotoxin Journal, 2018
North African countries (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) are surrounded by water bodies, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Their climate is characterised by high temperatures and high relative humidity in some areas, which are environmental conditions favourable to fast fungal growth and toxinogenesis. This paper reports information on the presence of toxigenic fungi, mycotoxins (especially aflatoxins and ochratoxin A) and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins (enniatins, beauvericin and fusaproliferin) in some Northern African commodities that are largely consumed and were investigated thoroughly, especially raw cereals, bread, couscous, pasta, milk, spices, wine, beer, fruit juices, olives and olive oil, dried fruits and nuts, poultry feeds, etc. in the three North African countries. High contamination levels have been reported for some food samples from the three countries. Steps towards better prevention of mycotoxin production in feeds and decrease of intestinal absorp...
Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods
Toxins
Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. Th...
The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin Contamination in Africa
Mycotoxins – Socio-economic and Health Impact as well as Pre- and Postharvest Management Strategies [Working Title], 2018
The proliferated contamination of agricultural commodities by mycotoxins and their attendant toxic effects on humans and animals which consume such commodities constitutes a major concern to food safety and security. These highly toxic food contaminants are produced by various filamentous fungi species that are ubiquitous in nature, however, favourable climatic conditions in the tropics favour their proliferation in these regions. Africa, by virtue of its location along the equator makes it highly accommodative to proliferation of mycotoxigenic fungi species, as such, it is the most affected of all the continents. Other factors such as poverty, and climate change further complicates the mycotoxin situation on the continent. Economic impact due to mycotoxin contamination in Africa is thus alarming. The effects of mycotoxins can in fact be felt in the overall health of humans and animals, sustainable development, food security and safety, damage to the African agricultural export brand, negatively impacting Africa's self-sustainability and increased dependence on foreign aid, not excluding high cost of research, mitigation and regulation of the prevalence of these toxins in African countries. This book chapter presents an exhaustive appraisal of the socioeconomic impact of mycotoxins on Africa. Our observations herein are expected to stimulate policy makers, as well as, all stakeholders along the food supply chain to identify critical areas of collaboration and strengthen alliances in order to ameliorate the effects of these toxicants on the continent of Africa, and the world at large.
Current status of major mycotoxins contamination in food and feed in Africa
Food Control, 2019
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Mycotoxins in Nigerian foodstuffs
2001
The presence of mycotoxins in a wide variety of Nigerian foodstuffs is a potential health hazard for the human population. The major fungal species implicated in the production of these toxins include Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. A random sample of maize and groundnuts harvested from farms in Ilorin and Ogbomoso, Nigeria, revealed the presence of fungal contaminants such as aflatoxins, moniliformin, zearalenone and cyclopiazonic acid in various amounts. Of the four toxins, only cyclopiazonic acid is a known inhibitor of the calcium-pumping adenosine triphosphatase (Ca 2+ -ATPase) in skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum. Since the Ca 2+ -ATPase represents about 85 per cent of the total proteins in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, ingestion of this mycotoxin will definitely have an effect on muscle development and function. We suggest here that the ingestion of cyclopiazonic acid in contaminated foodstuffs could play a role in the aetiology of muscle wasting diseases prevalent in the tropics.
Current Status of Mycotoxin Contamination of Food Commodities in Zimbabwe
Toxins, 2018
Agricultural products, especially cereal grains, serve as staple foods in sub-Saharan Africa. However, climatic conditions in this region can lead to contamination of these commodities by moulds, with subsequent production of mycotoxins posing health risks to both humans and animals. There is limited documentation on the occurrence of mycotoxins in sub-Saharan African countries, leading to the exposure of their populations to a wide variety of mycotoxins through consumption of contaminated foods. This review aims at highlighting the current status of mycotoxin contamination of food products in Zimbabwe and recommended strategies of reducing this problem. Zimbabwe is one of the African countries with very little information with regards to mycotoxin contamination of its food commodities, both on the market and at household levels. Even though evidence of multitoxin occurrence in some food commodities such as maize and other staple foods exist, available published research focuses only on Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins, namely aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON), trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone (ZEA). Occurrence of mycotoxins in the food chain has been mainly associated with poor agricultural practices. Analysis of mycotoxins has been done mainly using chromatographic and immunological methods. Zimbabwe has adopted European standards, but the legislation is quite flexible, with testing for mycotoxin contamination in food commodities being done voluntarily or upon request. Therefore, the country needs to tighten its legislation as well as adopt stricter standards that will improve the food safety and security of the masses.
Simultaneous occurrence of mycotoxins in human food commodities from Cameroon
Mycotoxin Research, 2009
In a mycological study, a total of 95 human food samples were investigated to evaluate the incidence of fungal contamination in Cameroon by conventional identification method and partly confirmed by DNA sequencing. The isolated fungal spp. were further studied to determine their toxigenic potentials. The investigation revealed the predominance of Aspergillus and Penicillium with 96% of samples contaminated with at least one species of these fungi, whereas the incidence of co-contamination of samples was 85%. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Flavi section) were the most predominant species contaminating mainly maize and peanuts. In addition, P. crustosum and P. polonicum were the most common contaminants belonging to the genus Penicillium. On the other hand, A. ochraceus (Circumdati section) registered a low incidence rate of 5%, including other members of the Aspergillus group. Other members of the genera Rhizopus and Alternaria spp. were also registered in the study. A majority of fungal strains of A. ochraceus, A. parasiticus, P. crustosum and P. polonicum isolated were toxigenic, producing the mycotoxins tested for, while none was detected in cultures of A. fumigatus. The high incidence rate of fungi contamination coupled with their potentials in producing mycotoxins gives a strong indication that the samples tested may likely be contaminated with various mycotoxins. There is need for further study to assess the incidence of mycotoxins contamination in similar food samples.
Epidemiology and pathological consequences of mycotoxicoses in Africa: a minireview
2015
Mycotoxicosis causes range of disease conditions which result from intoxication of the body system by mycotoxins produced by certain micro-fungi genera especially in foods and grains. Intoxification depends on the route of mycotoxin entry and type of mycotoxins. The clinical manifestations range from mild systemic dysfunctions to chronic pathologies with high propensity to induce tissue/ organ damages, cancers and even death. The occurrence of mycotoxin in food-stuffs has been considered a serious public health threat. In recent time, there has been paucity of information in regards to the detection/ diagnosis of mycotoxicosis in African. In view of this we conducted this review of relevant published articles using extensive literature search made through PubMed and Scopus on the biology, pathology and epidemiology of mycotoxicoses in Africans. Findings from this study showed that there have been under-diagnosis of mycotoxicosis in Africa and this had led to poor understanding of it...
Underreported Human Exposure to Mycotoxins: The Case of South Africa
Foods
South Africa (SA) is a leading exporter of maize in Africa. The commercial maize farming sector contributes to about 85% of the overall maize produced. More than 33% of South Africa’s population live in rural settlements, and their livelihoods depend entirely on subsistence farming. The subsistence farming system promotes fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This review aims to investigate the exposure levels of the rural population of South Africa to dietary mycotoxins contrary to several reports issued concerning the safety of South African maize. A systematic search was conducted using Google Scholar. Maize is a staple food in South Africa and consumption rates in rural and urban communities are different, for instance, intake may be 1–2 kg/person/day and 400 g/person/day, respectively. Commercial and subsistence maize farming techniques are different. There exist differences influencing the composition of mycotoxins in food commodities from both sectors. Depending on the leve...
Mycotoxins contamination in maize alarms food safety in sub-Sahara Africa
Food Control, 2018
Maize is a major staple food in sub-Sahara Africa. Maize grains are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination during production and storage. Tropical weather, poor agricultural practices, poor storage conditions and little knowledge on mycotoxins exposes sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) community at high risk of mycotoxin. Studies in SSA demonstrated that, maize grains are infested by toxigenic fungi and contaminated with mycotoxins to varying degree. Mycotoxins frequent occurring in maize include; aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxins and zearalenone. Their effect can be acute and/or chronic leading to health problems such as; liver cancer, immunosuppression, irritation, and respiratory problem among others. Local practices, maize seems to be less contaminated are used for human consumption while those unfit for human are used as feeds exposing human health at high risk of mycotoxins toxicity. It is important for sub-Sahara Africa countries to invest in infrastructures and enforce practices which leads to prevention and control of mycotoxins in maize before they become real risks. Also, interventions on public awareness on the effect of mycotoxins to human health should be promoted to guarantee safe maize and maize products. In this review, mycotoxins occurrence, incidences, prevention, control, decontamination and inactivation in maize are scrutinized and presented.
Toxins, 2019
In the framework of the first multi-centre Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study (SSA-TDS), 2328 commonly consumed foods were purchased, prepared as consumed and pooled into 194 composite samples of cereals, tubers, legumes, vegetables, nuts and seeds, dairy, oils, beverages and miscellaneous. Those core foods were tested for mycotoxins and other fungal, bacterial and plant secondary metabolites by liquid chromatography, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The highest aflatoxin concentrations were quantified in peanuts, peanut oil and maize. The mean concentration of the sum of aflatoxins AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 (AFtot) in peanut samples (56.4 µg/kg) exceeded EU (4 µg/kg) and Codex (15 µg/kg) standards. The AFtot concentration (max: 246.0 µg/kg) was associated with seasonal and geographic patterns and comprised, on average, 80% AFB1, the most potent aflatoxin. Although ochratoxin A concentrations rarely exceeded existing Codex standards, it was detected in unregulated foods. One ...
Engaging One Health for Non-Communicable Diseases in Africa: Perspective for Mycotoxins
Frontiers in public health, 2017
The role of mycotoxins-e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids-has been recognized in the etiology of a number of diseases. In many African countries, the public health impact of chronic (indoor) and/or repeated (dietary) mycotoxin exposure is largely ignored hitherto, with impact on human health, food security, and export of African agricultural food products. Notwithstanding, African scientific research reached milestones that, when linked to findings gained by the international scientific community, make the design and implementation of science-driven governance schemes feasible. Starting from Nigeria as leading African Country, this article (i) overviews available data on mycotoxins exposure in Africa; (ii) discusses new food safety issues, such as the environment-feed-food chain and toxic exposures of food producing animals in risk assessment and management; (iii) identifies milestones for mycotoxins risk m...